THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


MUSIC 
LIBRARY 


S*  - 

-*i^<2*v 


THE 


M.  STEINERT  COLLECTION 


OF 


KEYED  AND  STRINGED 
INSTRUMENTS. 


WITH  VARIOUS   TREATISES  ON  THE    HISTORY  OF   THESE   INSTRU- 
MENTS,  THE   METHOD    OF    PLAYING    THEM,    AND 
THEIR  INFLUENCE  ON  MUSICAL  ART. 


MORRIS    STEINERT, 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 


ILLUSTRATED. 
PRICE:    PAPER,  $1.00 ;    CLOTH,  $1.50. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

CHARLES    F.    TRETBAR, 

STEINWAY  HALL,  NEW  YORK. 


Copyright,  1893.  by  C.  F.  TRETBAR,  New  York. 


|)«ss  of 
H.    A.     ROST, 

NO.    14   FRANKFORT    STREET, 
NEW  YORK. 


Music 
library 

ML 


DEDICATED   TO   MY   FRIEND 
A.    J.    HIPKINS,    F.S.A., 

OF  LONDON,   ENGLAND, 

AS  A  MARK  OF   APPRECIATION. 


PREFACE. 


THE  articles  in  this  pamphlet  have  been  written  for  a  twofold 
purpose.  First.  In  order  to  serve  as  a  catalogue  to  the  visitor  of 
the  Exhibition,  to  fully  explain  to  him  the  nature  and  construction 
of  the  different  instruments  of  my  collection  and  to  serve  as  a  book 
for  future  reference.  My  experience  at  Vienna,  where  I  exhibited  a 
part  of  this  collection  in  1892,  has  taught  me  that  students  of  music 
in  order  to  fully  understand  these  instruments,  should  be  provided 
with  some  work  of  guidance,  explanation  and  instruction.  In  this 
little  volume  I  have  endeavored  to  fully  meet  this  demand. 

Second.  In  order  to  teach  the  student  the  polyphonic  nature  of 
the  music  of  the  great  masters  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  played 
on  the  instruments  of  that  period,  to  remind  him  that  the  music  of 
Bach  and  his  contemporaries  was  written  for  the  instruments  of  that 
period  solely,  and  that  their  innate  beauty  can  only  be  fully  compre- 
hended if  rendered  on  them,  although  the  music  of  Bach  has  been 
resuscitated  by  Mendelssohn  and  others,  the  instruments  for  which 
it  was  intended  had  been  lost  sight  of.  For  this  reason  I  have  made 
it  one  of  my  dearest  tasks  to  collect  and  fully  repair  these  instru- 
ments and  learn  the  original  method  of  playing  them,  in  order  to 
reproduce  these  works  strictly  in  conformity  with  the  composer's 
intention. 

In  my  researches  I  have  been  greatly  assisted  by  my  friend, 
A.  J.  HlPKINS,  F.  S.  A.,  of  London.  His  various  works  on  the 
history  and  construction  of  musical  instruments  have  been  of  immense 
value  to  me,  and  have  furnished  me  with  many  an  item  for  this 
little  work  which,  as  a  mark  of  appreciation,  I  dedicate  to  him. 

MORRIS  STEINERT. 


CONTENTS. 


NO.  PAGE. 

1.  INTRODUCTION, II 

2.  CATALOGUE   OF    KEYED    INSTRUMENTS,    WITH    ILLUSTRATIONS  15 

3.  HISTORY   OF   THE   PIANO-FORTE, 63 

4.  A    SYNOPSIS    OF    THE    ATTAINMENTS     OF    THE    GREAT    PIANO- 

BUILDERS    OF   THE    I7TH   AND    l8TH    CENTURIES,            .            .  83 

5.  THE   RENAISSANCE  OF  JOH.    SEE.    BACH*S   METHOD   OF    PLAYING 

THE    CLAVICHORD, 95 

6.  ARTICLE    OF    DR.    HIRSCHFELD,    VIENNA,         .            .            .            .  Ill 

7-       ARTICLE    FROM    THE    AUSTRIAN    NEWS    OF    MUSIC    AND 

DRAMA,    (MUSIC-ZEITUNG,)    VIENNA,         ....  121 

8.  ARTICLE    FROM    "WIENER   ABENDBLATT,"                .            .            .  127 

9.  A   LOST   ART.       FROM   THE     NEW   HAVEN    EVENING    REGISTER, 

NOVEMBER    1 7th,    1892, 133 

10.  HISTORY   OF   THE   VIOLIN, 139 

11.  CATALOGUE  OF   STRINGED  INSTRUMENTS,  WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS  153 


CATALOGUE 

OF   THE 

M.   STEINERT  COLLECTION 

OF 

KEYED  AND  STRINGED  INSTRUMENTS 

EXHIBITED  AS  A  LOAN  COLLECTION  AT  THE 
WORLD'S     COLUMBIAN    EXT>OSITIO^ 

BY   ITS   PROPRIETOR 

MORRIS  STEINERT, 

NEW    HAVEN.    CONN.,    U.    S.    A. 


THE  SAME  COLLECTION  AS   SHOWN  AT  THE 

INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION  FOR  Music  AND  THEATRE, 

VIENNA,  1892. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THIS  CATALOGUE  describes  my  collection  of  Keyed  and 
Stringed  Instruments  at  the  Exhibition  at  Chicago.  To  fully 
understand  their  construction,  and  the  art  of  playing  on  them,  it 
is  necessary  to  resort  to  books  treating  on  these  subjects.  Such 
a  one  I  have  prepared  and  submit  it  to  the  music-loving  public. 

A  visitor  glancing  at  these  instruments  may  at  first  view  con- 
sider them  as  antiquities,  such  as  are  met  with  in  Art  Museums. 
Herein  he  commits  an  error.  It  is  true  that  while  engaged  in  my 
task  as  collector  I  discovered  them  in  a  dilapidated  condition, 
and  unfit  to  be  played  on.  In  that  state  they  did  not  exhibit 
their  former  usefulness,  and  no  one  beholding  them  could  surmise 
that  they  served  the  musicians  of  the  past  centuries  as  musical 
instruments,  for  which  the  great  masters  of  that  period  composed 
their  divine  works,  and  that  they  were  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
transport  the  performer  to  the  most  exalted  realms  of  inspiration. 

I  have  succeeded  in  repairing  these  instruments,  so  that 
now,  after  centuries  of  quiet  rest,  they  appear  in  their  original 
living  state.  In  this  I  was  actuated  by  the  desire  that  these 
instruments  should  serve  as  a  medium  for  performing  on  them  the 
compositions  of  Bach  and  his  contemporaries,  so  as  to  enable  the 
student  of  music  to  hear  these  masterly  works  in  their  original 
garb. 

For  this  purpose  I  present  these  classical  instruments  to  the 
public,  and  hope  that  doing  this  I  may  render  some  service  to  our 
present  generation. 

M.  STEINERT. 

NEW  HAVEN,  June  19,  1893. 


M.  STEINERT. 


CLAVICHORDS, 


No.  i.— Clavichord,  4X  octaves.    "Gebunden." 

Of  the  1 5th  century.  In  this  instrument  a  small  bit  of  brass 
called  a  "tangent"  is  fastened  to  the  back  end  of  the  key,  and 
when  raised  by  pressing  the  key,  both  strikes  the  string  and 
divides  it,  thus  producing  at  the  same  time  tone  and  pitch.  An 
excellent  method  to  obtain  variety  in  force  and  quality  of  tone. 
This  instrument  has  more  keys  than  strings,  and  three  different 
tones  are  produced  upon  each  set  of  strings;  a  system  which 
is  called  in  German  ''gebunden,"  and  in  English  fretted. 


i6 


No.  2.— Clavichord,  4^  octaves.    "Gebunden." 

Of  the  1 6th  century.     In  this  instrument  two  different  tones  are 
produced  upon  each  set  of  strings. 


No.  3.— Clavichord,  4X  octaves.    "  Gebunden."    Case  in  rococo  style. 

In  white  enamel  and  gold,  latter  part  of  the  iyth  century. 
In  this  instrument  also  two  different  tones  are  produced  upon 
each  set  of  strings. 


i8 


No.  4a.— Clavichord,  4  octaves.     "Gebunden."    Mahogany  naturals 
and  black  sharps. 

The  case  is  in  black  enamel  with  gold,  and  rests  upon  a  frame. 
Two  different  tones  are  produced  upon  each  set  of  strings. 


No.  4b.— Clavichord,  $*/»  octaves.    "  Ungebunden," 


Has 


Made  by  Schiedmayer  in  Neustadt  an  der  Aisch,    1789 
black  naturals  and  white  sharps. 

Here  each  tangent  has  its  own  set  of  strings,  a  system  which 
is  called  "ungebunden,"  or  unfretted.  This  invention  was  made 
by  Daniel  Faber,  in  Crailsheim,  Germany,  1725. 


20 


No.  5 — Clavichord,  5#  octaves.    "Ungebunden." 

Made  by  Michael  Volt  &  Son,  in  Schweiniurt,  Bavaria,  Germany. 

No.  6.     Clavichord,  5^  octaves,   "ungebunden,"  made  by 
Michael  Voit  &  Son,  in  Schweinfurt,  Bavaria,  Germany. 


21 


No.  7.— Clavichord,  5^  octaves.     "  Ungebunden." 

The  maker's  name  unknown,  although  certain  peculiarities 
indicate  that  it  is  the  product  of  Gottfried  Silbermann  (born  1683, 
died  1753). 


SPINETS. 


No.  8.  Italian  Spinet,  3^  octaves,  from  the  middle  of  the 
1 5th  century. 

The  spinet  is  a  keyed  instrument,  with  "plectra"  or  jacks, 
which  was  probably  invented  during  the  i4th  century,  and  con- 
tinued in  use  until  the  i8th  century.  It  was  the  favorite  instrument 
of  Queen  Elizabeth.  It  has  one  string  to  each  note,  which  is 
plucked  by  a  crow-quill  fastened  to  a  jack  resting  upon  the  key, 
which  sets  the  string  in  vibration  when  the  key  is  pressed  down. 


a 

CT; 


.s 
T 

a 


25 


26 

No.  n.     Italian  Spinet,  3^  octaves,  from  the  middle  of  the 
1 5th  century. 


No.  12 — Double  Spinet.    4  octaves.    With  paintings. 

Made  by  the    amous  Hans  Ruckers  the  elder,  ot  Antwerp. 

The  Ruckers  made  spinets  as  early  as  1579,  and  their  instru- 
ments were  noted  as  being  of  the  finest  quality.  The  little  spinet 
at  the  left,  which  sets  into  the  spinet  proper,  is  tuned  one  octave 
higher  than  the  one  whose  keyboard  is  placed  to  the  right.  In 
performing  upon  both  instruments  at  the  same  time,  the  smaller 
instrument  is  removed  and  can  be  set  upon  a  table.  The  maker, 


27 

as  is  proved  by  his  initials  H.  R.  and  his  device  in  the  rose  of 
the  sound-hole,  is  no  other  than  the  famous  Hans  Ruckers  the 
elder,  of  Antwerp,  and  on  the  jack  rails  of  both  spinets  may  be 

read 

"  Johannes  Rvqvers  me  fecit." 

The  paintings  upon  the  lid  represent  a  contest  before  the  gods 
between  Apollo  and  Marsyus,  the  former  divinity  playing  a  viol 
and  the  latter  a  pipe.  The  background  is  a  hilly  country,  with  a 
lake  and  a  castle,  and  a  man  in  a  boat.  Above  and  below  the 
removable  spinet  are  painted  landscapes,  with  figures  immediately 
above  it,  children  dancing,  and  at  the  fixed  keyboard  men  and 
women  dancing  in  pairs.  The  instrument  rests  upon  a  stand  with 
seven  pierced  arches  and  columns.  With  the  exception  of  one  at 
Nuremberg,  made  in  1580  by  Martin  Beest,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
many  other  double  spinets  are  still  in  existence. 


28 


No.  13.— Spinet,  3^  octaves. 

Made  by  Andreas  Ruckers,  Antwerp,  1620. 

Andreas  was  the  son  of  Hans  the  elder,  and  was  equally 
celebrated  as  a  spinet  and  harpsichord  maker.  Handel's  favorite 
harpsichord,  which  he  used,  and  is  now  at  the  South  Kensington 
Museum  in  London,  was  built  by  Andreas  Ruckers  in  1641.  On 
the  inside  jack  rail  is  the  name  of  "Andreas  x  Rvckers  me  fecit 
Antverpia,"  and  on  the  rosette  his  initials  "A.  R."  and  King 
David  playing  on  the  harp.  On  the  inside  lid,  "  Sic  transit  gloria 
Mvndi." 


No.  14.— Spinet,  5  octaves. 

Made  by  Johannes  Hitchcock,  London,  about  1750.  Johannes 
and  Thomas  Hitchcock  were  the  most  celebrated  spinet  makers 
in  England. 

No.  15.  Spinet,  5  octaves,  made  by  Thomas  Hitchcock, 
London,  about  1750.  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  Thomas  and 
Johannes  Hitchcock  were  brothers,  but  worked  separately  and 
followed  different  schools. 

No.  16.  Spinet,  5  octaves,  made  by  Thomas  Barton,  London, 
1730.  Inscribed,  "Thomas  Barton,  MDCCXXX." 

No.  17.  Spinet,  5  octaves,  made  by  William  Pether,  London, 
about  1725,  having  the  following  inscription  on  the  name-board: 
*'-  Sofficitae  jucunda  oblivio  vitae/'  which  motto  reads  in  English 
as  follows:  "The  pleasant  oblivion  of  long  life."  The  upper  keys 
made  of  ivory  and  ebony.  This  instrument  is  on  exhibition  in 
the  Connecticut  Building. 


HARPSICHORDS. 


No.  18.    Harpsichord,  4^  octaves. 

Made  by  a  Florentine  at  Pisa,  1626. 

This  harpsichord,  which  sets  in  a  separate  case,  from  which  it 
can  be  withdrawn,  is  according  to  the  style  of  the  Italian  school 
of  the  1 6th  century.  It  has  three  registers  on  the  right  (outside) 
of  the  instrument,  two  strings  of  eight-foot,  tuned  in  unison,  and 
one  shorter  string  of  four-foot  tone.  The  natural  keys  are  made 


32 

of  boxwood  and  the  sharps  of  ebony.  The  case  is  highly 
decorated  with  paintings,  representing  figures  and  flowers,  both 
inside  and  outside.  This  highly  interesting  instrument  is  probably 
one  of  the  oldest  yet  in  existence. 


No.  19.— Harpsichord,  4  octaves,  3  registers. 

Made  by  Johannes  Couchet,  Antwerp,  1679;  wi(n  painting  by  Van  Kessell. 

This  instrument  has  three  registers,  of  which  two  are  of  eight- 
foot  and  one  of  four- foot  tone.  It  rests  upon  a  frame,  and  the 
case  and  sounding-board  contain  a  most  beautiful  painting  by  the 
celebrated  Dutch  painter  Van  Kessell.  Couchet  is  considered 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  harpsichord  makers  of  the  Netherland 
school,  was  a  grandson  of  the  celebrated  Hans  Ruckers  the  elder, 
and  a  nephew  and  apprentice  of  Hans  Ruckers  the  younger. 


33 


No.  200.    Harpsichord,  with  two  keyboards,  5  octaves. 

Built  by  J.  A.  Hass,  Hamburg,  1710. 

This  instrument  has  two  keyboards,  with  tortoise-shell  naturals 
and  ivory  sharps;  also  eight  stops,  similar  to  an  organ.  This  is 
probably  the  largest  harpsichord  in  existence,  both  as  to  di- 
mensions and  musical  capacity.  It  contains  a  long  set  of  strings, 
producing  a  sixteen-foot  tone,  also  two  shorter  sets,  each  set 


34 

producing  an  eight-foot  tone,  and  a  still  shorter  one  of  a  four-foot 
tone,  and  finally  two  very  short  sets,  each  giving  a  two-foot  tone. 
Furthermore,  one  stop  imitating  the  lute  and  another  one  the 
harp.  On  account  of  the  extraordinary  size  of  such  an  instru- 
ment, and  in  view  of  the  diminutive  size  of  instruments  of  that 
period,  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  supply  this  harpsichord  with 
eight  strong  legs.  The  sounding  board  is  painted  with  flowers 
and  other  artistic  decorations.  But  especially  it  is  the  rich 
paintings  on  the  inside  lid  which  display  the  most  excellent 
specimens  of  Japanese  art,  both  In  conception  and  in  execution. 
The  outer  case  and  legs  are  decorated  in  imitation  of  tortoise-shell. 
The  builder  of  this  instrument  was  noted  as  the  most  celebrated 
harpsichord  maker  of  that  period  in  Germany.  Whatever  must 
have  influenced  the  builder  to  produce  a  keyed  instrument  which 
was  capable  of  reproducing  the  prominent  elements  inherent  in 
the  organ,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  certain  influences  emanating 
from  great  musicians  must  have  operated  upon  him;  and  when 
we  consider  that  Hamburg  and  its  vicinity  was  the  home  of  the 
greatest  musicians,  such  as  Buxtehude,  Reinken,  Handel,  Bach, 
Hasse  andMattheson,itis  tobe  deplored  that  this  unique  instrument 
is  silent  as  to  its  past  history,  which,  no  doubt,  would  excite  our 
admiration,  could  we  know  who  were  the  musicians  who  have 
used  it.  Bach's  Concerto  in  the  Italian  style  and  his  French 
ouverture  were  composed  for  a  harpsichord  with  two  manuals. 
Its  original  title  reads  as  follows: 

"Zweiter  Theil  der  Clavier-Uebung,  bestehend  in  einem 
concerto  nach  italienischer  Gusto  und  einer  Ouverture  nach 
franzosischer  Arth,  vor  ein  Clavicymbel  (mit  zwei  manualen) 
deren  Liebhabern  zur  Gemiithsergotzung  verfertigt  von  J.  S. 
Bach." 

The  harpsichord  was  the  most  important  keyed  instrument 
used  during  the  i6th,  iyth  and  i8th  centuries.  It  served  as  an 
accompanying  orchestral  instrument  in  opera  and  oratorio.  Like 
the  spinet  family,  the  harpsichord  is  on  the  plectrum  principle. 


35 

The  strings  were  set  in  vibration  by  points  of  quill  or  hard  leather, 
elevated  on  wooden  uprights  known  as  jacks,  and  twitching  or 
plucking  them  as  the  depression  of  the  keys  caused  the  points  to 
pass  upwards. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  harpsichord  is  made  by  Eberhard 
Cersne,  A.  D.  1404.  Vincenzo  Galilei,  the  father  of  the  as- 
tronomer Galileo  Galilei,  infers  its  direct  derivation,  in  view  of 
its  harp-like  disposition,  to  the  harp. 


No.  2ob.     Harpsichord,  5  octaves.     Decorated. 

Built  by  J.  A.  Haas,  Hamburg,  1710. 


te. 


No.  2i.— Harpsichord,  with  two  keyboards.     5  octaves. 

Made  by  Jacobus  Kirkman,  London,  1769. 

Has  seven  registers,  two  of  eight  and  one  of  four-foot  tone, 
one  harp,  one  lute,  and  one  machine  stop.  Dr.  Burney,  in  Rees' 
Cyclopaedia,  gives  Jacobus  Kirkman's  harpsichords  high  praise, 
regarding  them  as  more  full  in  tone  and  durable  than  those  of 
Shudi.  They  retained  certain  features  of  the  Antwerp  Rucker 
model  as  late  as  1768,  preserving  Andre  Rucker's  keyboard 
(nearly  5  octaves)  with  lowest  G  sharp  wanting.  This,  as  well  as 
the  retention  of  the  rosette  in  the  sounding-board,  in  which  we 
find  King  David  playing  upon  the  harp,  between  the  letters  J  and 


37 

K.  Dr.  Burney  met  with  no  harpsichords  on  the  continent  that 
could  at  all  compare  with  those  made  in  England  by  Jacob 
Kirkman  and  his  almost  life-long  competitor,  Shudi.  (Grove's 
Dictionary  of  Music,  vol.  ii,  page  61.) 

No.  22.  Harpsichord,  with  two  keyboards,  5  octaves,  made 
by  Burkat  Shudi. 

Five  registers,  two  of  eight  and  one  of  four- foot  tone,  one  lute 
and  one  harp  stop.  Shudi  was  a  celebrated  harpsichord  maker, 
and  enjoyed  Handel's  friendship.  One  of  his  harpsichords,  No. 
94,  made  in  1740,  formerly  belonging  to  Queen  Charlotte,  is  now 
in  Windsor  Castle.  The  harpsichord  in  the  Steinert  collection 
bears  No.  144,  but  has  no  date,  and  was  probably  made  about 
1743.  The  two  harpsichords  Nos.  511  and  512,  both  built  in 
1766,  were  made  by  Shudi  for  Frederick  the  Great,  and  are  still  in 
the  Royal  Palace  in  Potsdam.  The  Shudi  harpsichord  No.  762, 
built  in  1775,  was  once  the  property  of  Jos.  Haydn,  and  is  now 
owned  by  the  Music  Verein  in  Vienna. 

No.  23.  Harpsichord,  single  keyboard,  5  octaves,  made  by 
Jacobus  Kirkman  in  London,  1755 

It  has  three  registers,  of  which  two  are  of  eight-foot  tone  in 
unison,  and  one  register  imitating  the  lute.  This  instrument  was 
formerly  owned  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte;  was  given,  after  his 
banishment  to  St.  Helena,  to  a  French  sergeant,  who  brought  it 
with  him  to  this  country,  where  he  settled  at  Scituate,  Mass.  In 
1833  he  sold  the  instrument  to  Simon  Bates,  of  Scituate  Harbor 
Light,  and  by  inheritance  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  his  son, 
James  G.  Bates,  who  is  still  alive,  and  from  him  into  the  pos- 
session of  his  daughter,  Mrs.  M.  Wharff,  now  living  at  Gloucester, 
Mass.,  of  whom  M.  Steinert  purchased  it.  The  Bates  family  is 
one  of  the  oldest  in  Massachusetts,  and  traces  its  direct  descent 
from  Peregrine  White,  who  came  over  in  the  Mayflower.  They 
claim  that  Daniel  Webster  and  other  noted  statesmen  were  in  the 
habit  of  listening  to  the  music  of  this  harpsichord. 


No.  24.— Harpsichord,  5  octaves. 

Made  by  Jacobus  and  Abraham  Kirkman,  London,  1776. 

Has  four  registers,  of  which  two  are  of  eight-foot  tone,  tuned 
in  unison,  and  one  of  four-foot  tone,  also  one  register  and  knee 
pedal  to  throw  on  the  octave. 


39 


HAMMERCLAVIERE 


The  hammerclavier  is  the  German  name  for  the  pianoforte,  a 
musical  instrument  of  the  percussive  group,  the  tones  being  pro- 
duced by  blows  of  hammers  upon  stretched  strings,  and  the 
hammers  being  operated  from  a  keyboard.  Essentially  the 
hammerclavier  is  a  large  dulcimer  with  a  keyboard;  but  historically 
it  replaced  the  clavichord  and  harpsichord,  which  were  keyboard 
instruments,  more  akin  to  the  harp  than  to  the  dulcimer.  Several 
attempts  were  made  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
to  combine  a  keyboard  with  it,  perhaps  the  most  important  being 
the  pantaleone  of  Hebenstreit.  The  keyboard  instruments  then 
known  were  nearly  or  entirely  incapable  of  gradation  in  the  loud- 
ness  of  their  tone;  hence  the  new  instrument  when  invented  in  Italy 
was  called  a  piano  e  forte,  because  its  main  peculiarity  was  that 
its  tone  might  be  made  either  loud  or  soft  at  the  player's  will. 
Its  widespread  use  in  consequence  of  the  many  improvements 
made,  brings  into  prominence,  however,  the  disadvantages  of  a 
percussive  tone,  which  cannot  be  sustained  or  varied  after  the 
initial  stroke,  of  an  ease  of  manipulation  which  invites  slovenly 
and  vulgar  use,  and  of  a  temperament  which,  with  the  common 
neglect  of  frequent  tuning,  often  hopelessly  corrupts  the  player's 
musical  ear. 

No.  25.  German  Hammerclavier,  4^  octaves,  by  Johann 
Christoff  Jeckel  in  Worms,  February  18,  1783,  single  action. 
There  are  two  stops,  one  piano  of  the  "celeste"  and  the  "forte." 
Both  are  divided  into  two  sections,  the  bass  and  the  treble,  each 
moved  independently  of  the  other  by  four  registers  on  the  front 


4o 


side  over  the  keyboard.  The  chief  interest  lies  in  the  forte  stop, 
which  raises  the  dampers  in  two  sections  by  two  stops.  It  con- 
sists of  a  strip  of  cloth  fastened  to  a  frame,  which  touches  the 
strings  lightly,  so  as  to  prevent  their  sounding  when  in  their 
natural  state-  having  no  separate  set  of  dampers  for  each  set  of 
strings,  as  in  the  present  piano,  which  signifies  its  very  primitive 
construction.  Grove  (III,  683)  speaks  of  a  French  instrument 
similar  to  this,  which  he  supposes  was  made  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
Quinze.  The  action  is  very  interesting.  Grove  calls  it  the 
"rudimentary  German  action,"  improved  by  Stein  about  1777. 


No.  25. 


No.  26. 


No.  25.— German  Hammerclavier,  4^  octaves. 

Made  by  Johann  Christoff  Jeckel,  at  Worms,  February  ?8th,  1783. 

No.  26.— German  Hammerclavier,  5  octaves. 

Made  about  1750,  by  Johann  Friedrich  Schneider,  Niirnberg. 

Black  naturals  and  white  sharps,  two  stops  to  draw  the  forte 
and  celeste.  Small  wooden  uncovered  hammers  strike  the  strings, 
single  action.  It  rests,  like  the  clavichord,  upon  a  frame. 


No.  27.— German  Hammerclavier,  4^  octaves.    About  1760. 

Maker  unknown,  possibly  made  by  Charles  E.  Frederici,  of  Gera, 
Germany.  The  sounding  board  covers  the  whole  interior  of  the 
piano,  and  the  keyboard  projects  from  one  side  of  the  case  similar 
to  a  spinet.  The  hammers  strike  the  strings  in  front  of  the  key- 
board, the  tuning  pins  being  to  the  right  side  of  the  instrument. 
It  has  single  action,  and  the  dampers  are  raised  by  means  of  a 
stop  to  the  left.  Black  naturals  and  white  sharps. 

No.  28.  German  Hammerclavier,  5  octaves,  black  naturals 
and  white  sharps,  single  action;  has  hand-stops  to  the  left,  and 
rests  upon  a  frame.  The  case  is  richly  inlaid.  Tuning  pins  to 
the  right,  similar  to  the  clavichord. 


No.  29.— Upright  Hammerclavier,  4^  octaves. 

Two  knee  pedals,  forte  and  celeste;  no  maker's  name  (about 
1780).  The  case  has  the  shape  of  an  old-fashioned  secretary, 
and  its  strings  run  in  a  horizontal  direction,  in  opposition  to  the 
usual  vertical  on  upright  pianos.  It  is  tuned  to  the  right,  and 
has  double  action,  white  naturals  and  black  sharps.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  instruments  of  the  collection. 


43 


No.  30.— Square  Pianoforte,  4  octaves.     One  pedal. 

In  form  of  a  lady's  sewing  table;  Stein  action,  white  naturals  and 
black  sharps;  is  tuned  one  octave  above  the  ordinary  pianoforte. 
This  interesting  instrument  has  been  in  the  possession  of  the 
Princess  of  Turn  and  Taxis  in  Regensburg,  Germany,  where  it 
was  purchased  by  Mr.  Steinert. 


44 

v 

No.  31.  English  Square  Piano,  5  octaves,  made  by  Broad- 
wood  &  Co.,  London,  about  1771.  The  action  is  single,  known 
as  the  "Zumpe."  It  has  two  stops,  the  piano  and  forte.  The 
forte  is  divided  into  two  sections;  they  are  operated  by  three 
levers  inside  the  case  at  its  left  end,  moved  by  hand.  The 
sounding-board  only  extends  across  the  right  hand,  not  over  the 
action.  Rests,  like  the  English  spinet,  upon  a  frame. 


No.  32 — English  Square  Piano,  5^  octaves.    Painted. 

No  maker's  name.  Double  action.  The  case  and  legs  are  beauti- 
fully painted  with  flowers,  and  the  top  is  richly  inlaid  with  fancy 
woods. 


45 


No.   33-—  Square  Piano,   $y2   octaves. 

Made  by  Johann  Schantz,  Vienna,  about  1780. 

Two  knee  pedals,  forte  and  celeste,  double  action.  The  case 
decorated  with  rich  brass  trimmings  of  the  period  of  Maria 
Theresa,  about  1780.  Johann  Schantz  was  Jos.  Haydn's  favorite 
pianoforte  maker. 


No.  34-—  Pianoforte,  5K  octaves. 

Made   by   John    Geib,    New  York,    about   1815. 

Three  pedals  and  triple  strung.  The  instrument,  which  is 
inlaid  with  brass,  rests  upon  a  frame  with  claw  feet,  which  are 
beautifully  carved  and  gilded. 


47 


No.  35  —  Square,  6  octaves. 

Made  by  A.  Babcock,   Boston,  about  1820 

The  case,  in  the  empire  style,  is  beautifully  inlaid  with  brass. 
The  pianos  of  Babcock  were  of  most  delicious  tone  and  touch, 
and  this  instrument  represents  an  excellent  specimen  of  his  pro- 
duction. 


No.  36.— Square  Pianoforte,  of  German  pattern,  6l/2  octaves. 

Made  by  Joseph  Hiskey,  Baltimore,  Md.,  about  1820. 

The  sounding  board  covers  the  action,  tuning  pins  above 
the  keyboard  like  the  grand  piano,  triple  strung;  four  pedals, 
forte,  celeste,  bassoon,  janizary  music  with  drum,  triangle  and 
cymbal. 


49 


GRAND    PIANOS. 


No.  37 — Concert  Grand,  5^  octaves. 

Made  by  Johann  Andreas  Stein,  in  Augsburg,  about  1760. 

Black  naturals  and  white  sharps,  with  knee  pedal.  The 
case  is  made  of  German  oak;  the  top  is  panelled.  Stein,  like 
Silbermann,  was  a  celebrated  builder  of  church  organs,  clavi- 
chords, harpsichords  and  pianofortes.  He  was  the  inventor  of 


5° 

the  so-called  Vienna  pianoforte  action,  the  knee  pedal,  and  con- 
trivances for  shifting  the  keyboard,  whereby  the  hammer,  instead 
of  striking  three  strings,  strikes  one  string  only,  thus  producing 
the  "una  corda"  effect.  Stein  grands  are  hardly  ever  more  met 
with 


No.  38.— Concert  Grand,  5  octaves. 

Maker's  name  unknown.     Was  used  by  Haydn. 

Black  naturals  and  white  sharps,  knee  pedal,  and  one  stop  in 
front  of  the  keyboard  to  produce  the  "  celeste."  This  instrument 
has  been  the  property  of  Jos.  Haydn,  and  was  used  by  him  in  his 
birth-house,  and  later  on  in  his  summer  residence  in  Rohrau  near 
Vienna. 


S1 


- .  _, 


No.  39.    Concert  Grand,  5  octaves  and  knee  pedal. 

Black  naturals  and  white  sharps,  with  the  inscription  on  the 
sounding-board,  "  Mozart's  Spinet."  No  maker's  name.  This 
instrument  was  found  in  Salzburg,  and  is  an  exact  counterpart 
of  the  grand  used  by  Mozart,  now  in  the  Mozarteum  in  Salz- 
burg, which  does  not  bear  the  maker's  name,  but  it  is  claimed 
was  made  by  Anton  Walter  of  Vienna.  Haydn  and  Mozart 
used  to  play  duets  upon  this  instrument. 


S2 


No.  40.    Concert  Grand,  5  octaves  and  knee  pedal. 

Made  by  Johann  Jacob  Konicke  in  Vienna. 

Has  black  naturals  and  white  sharps.     A  true  copy  of  Joh. 
Andreas  Stein  grand.     Built  about   1770. 


53 


No.  4\.    Concert  Grand  Piano,  6  octaves. 

Made  by  Anton  Walter  &  Son,  Vienna. 

Six  pedals:  No.  i,  shifting  the  keyboard  for  una  corda; 
No.  2,  shifting  the  pedal  for  tua  corda;  No.  3,  bassoon;  No.  4, 
forte;  No.  5,  celeste;  No.  6,  drum,  triangle  and  cymbals.  The 
case  with  elegant  decorations  and  the  legs  artistically  carved. 
Anton  Walter  was  Mozart's  favorite  pianoforte  maker.  About 
1780. 


54 


No.  42.— Concert  Grand,  6  octaves. 

Made  by  Joh.   Grober,  Insbruck,  Tyrol. 

Five  pedals:    No.  i,  shifting  keyboard;    No.  2,  forte;   No.  3, 
piano;   No.  4,  pianissimo;   No.  5,  bassoon. 


55 


No.  43. — Beethoven's  Concert  Grand,  6%  octaves. 

Built  by  Madame  Nanette  Streicher,  nee  Stein,  Vienna,  1816. 

Five  pedals:  No.  i,  una  corda;  No.  2,  tua  corda;  No.  3, 
celeste;  No.  4,  bassoon;  No.  5,  forte.  Bearing  on  the  sounding- 
board  the  following  inscription:  (< Nanette  Streicher  ne'e  Stein, 
Wien,  1816."  Madame  Streicher  was  the  daughter  of  the  cele- 
brated piano  maker,  John  Andreas  Stein  of  Augsburg,  and  is 
the  builder  of  this  instrument.  She  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Beethoven,  and  it  is  said  that  this  instrument  has  been  loaned 
by  her  to  the  great  composer  during  his  stay  in  his  summer 
retreat  in  Baden. 


No.  44.— Concert  Grand,  6  octaves. 

Made  by  Madame  Nanette  Streicher,  nee  Stein,  Vienna, 

It  is  marked  No.    1570,   and  has  four  pedals:   No.  i,   una 

corda;   No.   2,  tua  corda;   No.  3,  celeste;   No.  4,  forte.  There 

is  a  grand  piano  made  by  the  same  lady  at  Windsor  Castle, 
England,  the  property  of  the   Queen  of  England. 


57 


No.  45.— Vertical  Concert  Grand,  6  octaves. 

Made  by  C.   Miiller,  Vienna,  about  1780. 

Has  black  naturals  and  white  sharps,  three  pedals  :  No.  i,  una 
corda;  No.  2,  celeste;  No.  3,  forte.  The  front  of  this  instrument 
is  highly  decorated,  and  contains  a  gilded  swan  on  top  of  it. 


No.  46.— Concert  Grand,  6  octaves. 

Made  by  Andre  Stein,  d' Augsburg,  Vienna. 

With  knee  pedal,  black  naturals  and  white  sharps.  Andre 
Stein  was  the  son  of  the  great  Joh.  Andreas  Stein  of  Augsburg, 
and  a  brother  to  Madame  Nanette  Streicher. 


59 


No.  47.— Vertical  Grand.     6  octaves,  4  pedals. 

CLOSED. 

Made  by  Andre  Stein,  d' Augsburg,  Vienna. 
On  the  inside  are  the  letters  A.  S.,  1779. 


6o 


No.  47 — Vertical  Grand. 

OPEN. 

Made  by  Andre  Stein,  d' Augsburg,  Vienna. 
On  the  inside  are  the  letters  A.  S.  1779. 


6i 


No.  47.— Piano  Violin,  6  octaves. 

Made  by  Baudet,  Paris. 

The  strings  in  this  upright  piano  are  made  of  wire  as  in  a 
pianoforte,  but  of  greater  relative  thickness,  there  being  one 
only  to  each  note.  They  run  in  a  vertical  direction,  and  to 
each  string  is  attached  a  small  bundle  of  bristles,  projecting 
in  front  about  one  inch.  A  metallic  roller,  slightly  rosined,  is 
made  to  turn  by  means  of  treadles.  When  the  keys  are  put 
down,  a  tangent  holding  a  piece  of  whalebone  presses  the  bristles 
toward  the  roller,  when  motion  is  then  communicated  through 
the  bristles  to  the  strings,  and  in  consequence  their  musical 
vibration  is  excited.  The  impression  on  the  ear  is  that  of  a 
string  orchestra. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PIANO-FORTE. 


FROM  CLASSIC  MONOCHORD  TO  MODERN 

PIANO. 


HE  history  of  the  pianoforte  dates  from  the  monochord 
and  the  ancient  Greeks. 

The  monochord  is  an  instrument  consisting  of  a 
long  box  of  thin  wood,  with  a  bridge  fixed  at  each  end,  and  an 
intermediate  movable  bridge,  over  which  is  stretched  a  wire  or 
catgut  string. 

The  monochord  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Pythagoras 
in  the  sixth  century,  B.  C.  Its  principle  was  used  twenty-four 
hundred  years  before  by  the  Egyptians.  The  instrument  was  used 
for  centuries  in  the  church  to  initiate  the  singers  into  the  mysteries 
of  the  eight  tones. 

Ultimately  it  was  found  more  convenient  to  dispense  with 
shifting  bridges  and  at  the  points  of  division  to  adjust  fixed  bridges 
raised  by  an  apparatus  resembling  the  keys  of  the  organ,  to  press 
the  strings  and  produce  the  notes  required.  This  led  to  the 
invention  of  the  clavichord.  The  clavichord  has  been  followed  by 
the  square  pianoforte,  of  which  it  was  the  prototype. 

The  lower  or  natural  keys  were  usually  black,  and  the  upper 
or  chromatic,  white.  The  strings  of  finely  drawn  brass  wire,  were 
stretched  nearly  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  case,  but 
with  a  bias  toward  the  back.  On  the  right  of  the  player  there 
were  inserted  in  the  soundboard,  strengthened  on  the  under  side 
by  a  slip  of  oak  to  receive  them,  the  wrests,  or  tuning  pins,  round 
which  the  strings  were  fastened,  while  at  the  back  and  partly 


66 

along  the  left  hand  side  of  the  case,  they  were  attached  by  small 
eyes  to  hitch-pins  of  thicker  wire.  On  the  right  hand  the  strings 
rested  upon  a  curved  bridge,  pinned  to  fix  their  direction,  and 
conducting  their  sound-waves  to  the  soundboard,  a  flat  surface  of 
wood  beneath,  extending  partly  over  the  instrument.  Nearly  at 
the  back  of  each  key,  in  an  upright  position,  there  was  placed  a 
small  brass  wedge  or  "tangent"  about  an  inch  high  and  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  broad  at  the  top. 

USES   OF   THE    "TANGENT." 

The  tangent,  when  the  key  was  put  down,  rose  to  the  string 
and  pressing  it  upward  set  it  in  vibration.  With  a  good  touch  the 
player  could  feel  the  elasticity  of  the  string,  and  the  more  this  was 
felt  the  better  the  instrument  was  considered  to  be.  By  the 
pressure  of  the  tangent  the  string  was  divided  into  two  unequal 
lengths,  each  of  which  would  have  vibrated,  but  the  shorter  was 
instantly  damped  by  a  narrow  band  of  cloth  interlaced  with  the 
strings,  which  also  damped  the  longer  section  as  soon  as  the 
player  allowed  the  key  to  rise  and  the  tangent  to  fall. 

The  tangent  thus  not  only  produced  the  tones,  but  served  as  a 
second  bridge  to  measure  off  the  vibrating  lengths  required  for 
the  pitch  of  the  notes.  Thus  a  delicate  tone  was  obtained  that 
had  something  in  it  charmingly  hesitating  or  tremulous.  The 
tone  of  the  clavichord,  although  very  weak,  was  yet  capable, 
unlike  that  of  the  harpsichord  or  spinet,  of  increase  and  decrease, 
reflecting  the  finest  and  most  tender  gradations  of  the  touch  of 
the  player.  In  this  power  of  expression  it  was  without  a  rival 
until  the  pianoforte  was  invented. 

Koch,  in  his  musical  lexicon,  describes  the  clavichord  as 
"Labsal  des  Dulders,  und  des  Frohsinns  theilnehmenden  Freund" 
(the  comfort  of  the  sufferer  and  the  sympathizing  friend  of 
cheerfulness). 

The  clavichord  was  a  favorite  instrument  with  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach,  who  preferred  it  to  the  pianoforte.  Mozart  used 


67 

the  clavichord  now  in  Mozarteum  at  Salzburg  in  composing  his 
''Zauberflote"  and  other  masterpieces.  Beethoven  is  reported  to 
have  said: — "Among  all  keyed  instruments  the  clavichord  was 
that  on  which  one  could  best  control  tone  and  expressive 
interpretation." 

Clavichords  made  prior  to  the  last  century  had  strings  for  the 
lower  or  natural  keys  only,  the  semitones  on  the  upper  keys  being 
produced  by  tangents  directed  toward  the  strings  of  the  lower. 
Thus  C  sharp  was  obtained  by  striking  the  C  string  at  a  shorter 
length.  D  sharp  and  E  in  a  like  manner  also. 

About  the  year  1725  Daniel  Faber,  of  Crailsheim,  gave  the 
semitone  its  own  string,  and  instruments  so  made  were  distinguished 
as  "bundfrei"  from  the  older  "gebunden,"  which  was  a  system  of 
"fretting." 

The  early  history  of  the  clavichord  previous  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  together  with  that  of  the  chromatic  keyboard,  rests  in 
profound  obscurity.  Welcker  describes  the  oldest  clavichord  he 
had  met  with  as  bearing  the  date  1520,  having  four  octaves,  but 
the  notes  D  sharp  and  G  sharp  were  wanting.  Clavichords  had, 
even  with  the  last  improvements,  a  soft,  hesitating  tone.  After 
they  came  into  general  use  the  idea  arose  of  constructing  an 
instrument  whose  strings  could  be  set  into  stronger  vibration  by 
means  of  more  powerful  tangents,  in  order  to  gain  thereby  a  more 
powerful,  more  intense  tone. 

STRINGED   INSTRUMENTS    OF   THE    MIDDLE  AGES, 
ON   THE    PLECTRUM   SYSTEM. 

Of  the  many  stringed  instruments  that  could  be  used  for  this 
purpose  there  were  known  in  the  Middle  Ages,  in  addition  to  the 
harp,  the  psaltery  and  the  dulcimer  (German,  hackbrett). 

The  psaltery,  in  triangular,  square,  curved  or  harplike  form, 
was  either  carried  with  a  ribbon  around  the  neck,  or  when  used 
was  placed  on  some  piece  of  furniture.  Its  strings  were  operated 
by  means  of  a  plectrum,  which  was  fastened  by  rings  to  the  hand 


68 

of  the  performer.  The  psaltery  was  the  prototype  of  the  spinet 
and  harpsichord,  particulary  in  the  form  described  by  Praetorius 
in  his  "Organographia"  as  "Istromento  di  porco,"  so-called  from 
its  likeness  to  a  pig's  head. 

Musical  writers  of  the  year  1650  say  that  the  psaltery,  played 
with  a  skilled  hand,  stood  second  to  no  other  instrument,  and 
praise  its  silvery  tone  in  preference  to  that  of  any  other  and  its 
purity  of  intonation  so  easily  controlled  by  the  fingers. 

The  spinet  is  a  keyed  instrument  with  plectra  or  jacks.  It  was 
used  in  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  It 
may  be  described  as  a  small  harpsichord  or  virginal,  with  one 
string  to  each  note.  It  is  said  to  be  the  invention  of  the  Venetian 
Spinetti.  Banchieri,  in  1608,  derives  the  name  "spinetta"  from 
this  maker.  It  is  in  shape  the  same  as  the  clavichord  and  has  the 
same  keyboard.  The  jack  action  is  derived  from  the  psaltery 
plectrum,  while  the  tangent  of  the  clavichord  comes  from  the 
monochord  bridge.  All  instruments  of  the  spinet,  harpsichord, 
virginal  and  clavicymbalo  family  were  on  the  plectrum  principle, 
and  therefore  were  incapable  of  dynamic  modification  of  tone  by 
difference  of  touch.  The  strings  were  set  in  vibration  by  points 
of  quill  or  hard  leather,  elevated  on  wooden  uprights  known  as 
jacks,  and  twitching  or  plucking  them  as  the  depression  of  the 
keys  caused  the  points  to  pass  upward. 

THE   HARPSICHORD. 

The  harpsichord  in  its  form  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
keyboard  and  strings  resembled  a  piano.  In  form  it  resembled  a 
modern  grand  pianoforte.  The  compass  of  the  keyboard  was 
from  four  to  five  octaves.  The  number  of  separate  strings  to 
each  key  varied  from  one  to  four,  sometimes  including  one  tuned 
an  octave  or  two  above  the  others.  Two  keyboards  were  some- 
times combined,  one  for  soft  effects,  the  other  for  loud.  Numerous 
devices  usually  connected  with  the  jacks,  were  introduced  at  differ- 
ent times  to  secure  variety  in  force,  and  especially  in  quality. 


69 

These  mechanisms,  which  often  aimed  to  stimulate  the  tone 
qualities  of  various  orchestral  instruments,  were  usually  controlled 
by  stop-knobs  near  the  keyboard.  The  harpsichord  was  the  most 
important  keyed  instrument  during  the  last  century.  It  was 
regularly  used  in  all  dramatic  music,  especially  in  accompanying 
recitatives,  and  in  orchestral  music.  The  conductor  usually 
directed  from  his  seat  at  a  harpsichord  placed  amid  the  other 
instruments. 

THE   EARLIEST   HARPSICHORD. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  harpsichord  is  under  the  name  of 
clavicymbalum,  in  the  "Rules  of  the  Minnesingers,"  by  Eberhard 
Cersne,  A.  D.  1404.  With  it  occur  the  clavichord,  the  monochord 
and  other  musical  instruments  in  use  at  that  time.  The  absence 
of  any  prior  mention  or  illustration  of  keyed  instruments  is  negative 
evidence  only,  but  it  may  be  assumed  to  prove  their  invention  to 
have  been  shortly  before  that  date — say,  in  the  later  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Jean  de  Muris,  writing  in  1323  and  enu- 
merating musical  instruments,  makes  no  reference  to  either 
clavicymbalo  or  clavichord,  but  describes  the  monochord,  as  in  use 
for  measuring  intervals  at  that  time.  Moreover,  there  was  no 
music  wire  before  this  epoch;  the  earliest  record  of  wire  drawing 
being  1351  A.  D.,  at  Augsburg.  There  were  three  different  shapes 
of  jack  instruments  made — the  harpsichord  of  trapeze  form,  the 
clavichord  of  oblong  or  pentangular  form,  frequently  called  spinet 
or  virginal,  and  the  upright  harpsichord  or  clavicytherium.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  long  harpsichords  were  often 
described  as  spinets  or  virginals  from  their  plectra  or  their  use  by 
young  ladies,  but  the  table-shaped  ones  known  commonly  by  the 
Latin  names  were  never  called  harpsichords. 

FAMOUS   SPINET   AND  HARPSICHORD  MAKERS. 

The  most  celebrated  spinet  and  harpsichord  makers  were 
Joanes  Antonius  Baffo,  Venice,  1574;  Hans  Ruckers,  1575; 


7° 

Andreas  Ruckers,  Antwerp,  1614;  Pascal  Taskin,  1786.  Paris  — 
Annibal  Rosso,  1555;  Keene,  1685;  John  and  Thomas  Hitch- 
cock, 1630;  Charles  Harvard,  1676;  Haxby,  of  York,  1766. 
Haas,  Hamburg,  1700.  The  Ruckers,  of  Antwerp,  stood  the 
highest  in  the  art  of  harpsichord  making.  It  was  the  school 
of  the  Ruckers,  transferred  to  England  by  a  Fleming  named 
Tabel,  that  was  the  real  basis  of  harpsichord  as  a  distinct  business 
in  that  country,  separating  it  from  organ  building,  with  which 
it  had  been,  as  in  Flanders,  often  combined.  Tabel's  pupils, 
Burkhand  Tschudi  and  Jacob  Kir-kman,  became  famous  in  the 
last  century,  developing  the  harpsichord  in  the  direction  of  power 
and  majesty  of  tone  to  the  furthest  limit. 

FROM    DULCIMER    TO    PIANO-FORTE. 

The  dulcimer  is  the  prototype  of  the  piano,  just  as  the 
monochord  was  that  of  the  clavichord  and  the  psaltery  that  of  the 
harpsichord.  The  psaltery  and  dulcimer  were  so  nearly  alike  that 
one  description  might  serve  for  both,  were  it  not  for  the  different 
manner  of  playing  them.  The  strings  of  the  psaltery  were  set  in 
vibration  by  a  plectrum,  whereas  the  tones  of  the  dulcimer  were 
produced  by  small  hammers  held  in  the  hands  of  the  performer. 

It  is  also  no  less  desirable  to  separate  in  description  instruments 
so  nearly  resembling  each  other,  on  account  of  their  ultimate  de- 
velopment into  the  harpsichord  and  pianoforte  by  the  addition  of 
keys.  The  roughness  of  description  used  by  mediaeval  Italians  in 
naming  one  form  of  psaltery  "strumento  di  porco,"  pig's  head  was 
adopted  by  the  Germans  in  their  faithful  translation  "  schweins- 
kopf,"  and  in  naming  a  dulcimer  "hackbrett,"  a  butcher's  board 
for  chopping  sausage  meat. 

The  dulcimer  is  a  trapeze  shaped  instrument  of  not  more  than 
three  feet  in  greatest  width,  composed  of  a  wooden  framing  en-- 
closing a  wrestplank  for  the  tuning  pins  around  which  the  strings 
are  wound  at  one  end  and  a  soundboard  ornamented  with  two  or 
more  sound  holes  and  carrying  two  bridges  between  which  are  the 


lengths  of  wire  intended  to  vibrate  and  a  hitch-pin  block  for  the 
attachment  of  the  other  end  of  the  strings.  Two,  three,  four  and 
sometimes  five  strings  of  fine  brass  or  iron  wire  are  grouped  for 
each  note. 

The  dulcimer  laid  upon  a  table  or  frame  is  struck  with  hammers, 
the  heads  of  which  are  clothed  on  either  side  with  hard  and  soft 
leather  to  produce  the  forte  and  piano  effects.  The  tone,  harsh  in 
the  loud  playing,  is  always  confused,  as  there  is  no  damping  con- 
trivance to  stop  the  continuance  of  sounds  when  not  required. 

LOUIS   XIV.'S    "PANTALEON." 

Pantaleon  Hebenstreit,  of  Eisleben,  became  about  1697  a 
virtuoso  upon  the  dulcimer,  which  he  quadrupled  in  dimensions, 
and  had  constructed  as  a  double  "hackbrett"  with  two  sound- 
boards, each  with  its  scale  of  strings  on  one  side,  overspun  catgut 
on  the  other  wire.  With  this  powerful  chromatic  instrument,  de- 
manding herculean  force  to  play,  Hebenstreit  travelled  to  Paris  in 
1705,  where  Louis  XIV.  christened  it  with  his  name,  "  Pantaleon." 
Kiihnan  (in  Mattheson's  "Critica  Musica,"  December  8,  1717), 
praises  the  instrument  and  its  superiority  over  the  harpsichords 
and  clavichords  in  possessing  the  properties  of  piano  and  forte. 
It  was  this,  according  to  Schroter's  account,  that  led  him  to 
ponder  over  a  keyed  instrument  to  do  the  like  and  to  his 
notion  of  a  pianoforte. 

In  Germany,  France  and  Italy  the  celebrated  organ  builder, 
Gottfried  Silbermann,  was  formerly  universally  considered  as  the 
inventor  of  the  pianoforte,  until  the  organist,  Ch.  G.  Schroter,  ten 
years  after  the  death  of  Silbermann,  in  1763,  claimed  the  honor 
of  said  invention  for  himself,  and  attempted  to  furnish  proofs  for 
his  claims  by  means  of  documents  and  drawings.  Lately,  how- 
ever, extracts  from  Italian  and  French  archives  have  been 
published,  which  for  the  first  time  accurately  reveal  the  part  taken 
by  Schroter  and  Silbermann  in  this  invention. 


72 

CRISTOFORI  THE  REAL  INVENTOR. 
These  communications,  verified  by  the  pianofortes  of  those 
times  still  existing,  necessitate  a  complete  revolution  of  all  previous 
histories  of  the  pianoforte.  They  are  chiefly  the  results  of  the 
efforts  of  a  society  in  Florence  which  had  resolved  to  have  a 
celebration  on  March  7,  1874,  in  commemoration  of  Cristofori, 
the  first  and  without  doubt  independent  inventor  of  the  "clavi- 
cymbel  with  piano  and  forte."  This  instrument,  known  since 
1711,  was  called  by  its  inventor  "pianoforte,"  and  has  retained 
such  name  ever  since  outside  of  Italy.  After  the  inventor's  death 
he  was  casually  named  "  Cristofori,"  "  Cristofani,"  "  Cristofali,"  &c. 
Cristofori,  according  to  the  latest  researches,  was  born  May  4, 
1653,  at  Padua.  Here  he  attained  such  a  high  renown  as  a  keyed 
instrument  maker  that  the  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Medici,  known  as 
a  patron  of  arts,  and  especially  as  a  connoisseur  of  music,  induced 
him  to  settle  in  Florence  and  enter  his  services  as  Court  maker  of 
clavichords,  spinets  and  harpsichords,  and  to  also  serve  as  custodian 
of  his  collection  of  musical  instruments.  In  the  year  1711,  in  a 
newspaper  published  in  Venice,  the  invention,  hitherto  considered 
impossible,  of  a  "  Gravecembalo  col  piano  e  forte  "  was  announced. 
It  was  further  added  that  the  lucky  inventor  was  the  paid  and 
employed  Cymbalist  of  the  Prince  of  Toscana — namely, 
''Bartolommeo  Cristofali,"  and  that  he  had  already  completed 
three  grand  pianos  of  the  usual  size  and  equal  quality.  It  was 
especially  mentioned  that  in  these  new  instruments  it  depended 
upon  the  strength  with  which  the  player  touched  the  key  to  pro- 
duce a  weaker  or  stronger  tone  with  all  its  gradations.  Many 
musicians,  the  author  of  said  article,  Marchese  Scipione  Maffei  di 
Verona,  continues,  refuse  to  pay  the  tribute  due  to  this  invention, 
because  its  tone  is  too  weak  and  obtuse,  although  one  gets  easily 
accustomed  to  it,  and  soon  even  prefers  it  to  the  former  instru- 
ments. The  chief  objection  made  to  the  new  instrument  is  this, 
that  one  has  to  become  accustomed  to  the  manner  of  playing  it 
even  if  expert  on  the  other  keyed  instruments.  Maffei,  however, 


73 

says,  as  this  is  a  new  instrument,  its  properties  must  be  first 
studied  in  order  to  cause  its  peculiarities  to  be  exhibited  with  skill 
and  taste. 

MARIUS,    SILBERMANN    AND   SCHROETER. 

Marius,  doubtless,  is  the  second  equally  independent  inventor 
of  a  pianoforte.  In  1716  he  presented  to  the  Royal  Academy  in 
Paris  the  designs  and  descriptions  of  four  different  pianoforte 
models.  The  Court  composer,  John  F.  Agricola,  in  Berlin  writes 
in  a  musical  publication  in  1767: — "Mr.  Gottfried  Silbermann  is 
renowned  on  account  of  his  beautiful  grands  and  other  claviere, 
of  his  invention  of  the  cymbal  d'amour  and  also  on  account  of  his 
improvement  of  the  pianoforte.  The  first  attempt  at  this  piano- 
forte, however,  was  conceived  and  executed  in  Italy.  But  Mr. 
Silbermann  has  made  so  many  improvements  in  it  that  he  is  not 
much  less  than  the  inventor  thereof." 

In  1763  Organist  Ch.  G.  Schroter,  in  Nordhausen,  hereinbefore 
mentioned,  published  a  minute  description  of  a  new  invented 
clavier,  on  which  one  can  play  loud  or  soft,  according  to  the  way 
the  keys  are  touched.  He  says  that  he  was  led  to  this  invention 
by  the  pantaleon  of  the  renowned  virtuoso  Hebenstreit,  and  that 
already  in  1717  he  had  made  attempts  to  produce  a  keyed  instru- 
ment whose  strings  could  be  set  in  motion  by  means  of  beaters  or 
hammers  instead  of  the  tangents,  quills  or  plectra  hitherto  used. 
He  further  narrates  that  in  1721  he  submitted  two  models  to  the 
Court  in  Dresden.  In  one  the  hammers  struck  the  strings  from 
above,  in  the  other  from  below;  that  both  were  supplied  with 
dampers  and  that  the  strings  could  be  made  to  resound  softly  or 
loudly.  The  models  met  the  approval  of  the  King,  who  ordsred 
the  construction  of  the  one  struck  by  hammers  from  below.  The 
execution  of  this  order  was  never  completed,  and  when  Schroter 
desired  to  leave  Dresden  he  could  not  obtain  possession  of  his 
models  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts.  Without  his  knowledge  and 


74 

consent,  as  he  says,  his  invention  became  known  in  Germany,  and 
bad  imitations  thereof  were  made  and  called  pianofortes. 

Agricola  adds  the  following  to  the  history  of  the  pianoforte: — 

"  Mr.  Gottfried  Silbermann  had  made  at  first  two  of  these 
instruments.  The  blessed  chapel  master,  Johann  Sebastian  Bach, 
had  seen  and  played  on  one  of  them.  He  had  praised  its  tone 
and  even  admired  it,  but  he  had  found  the  fault  that  in  its  high 
notes  it  was  too  weak,  and  that  it  was  too  hard  to  play.  Mr. 
Silbermann  had  heard  these  complaints  with  ill  grace  and  had 
been  angry  with  Mr.  Bach  for  a  long  time.  But  his  own  con- 
science told  him  that  Mr.  Bach's  criticisms  were  correct.  He 
came  to  the  conclusion,  it  must  be  said  to  his  glory,  not  to  make 
any  more  of  these  instruments,  but  to  work  hard  in  order  to  in- 
vent something  to  do  away  with  the  faults  mentioned  by  Mr.  Bach. 
On  this  he  worked  many  years.  Finally,  after  Mr.  Silbermann 
had  in  fact  made  many  improvements,  he  sold  another  instrument 
to  the  Court  in  Rudolstadt,  and  shortly  afterward  one  to  His 
Royal  Majesty  the  King  of  Prussia,  and,  as  this  one  met  with 
universal  approval,  many  more.  He  even  had  the  praiseworthy 
ambition  to  exhibit  one  of  these  instruments  of  his  later  con- 
struction to  the  chapel  master,  Mr.  Bach,  and  to  have  him  examine 
the  same  and  received  from  him  his  utmost  approval." 

According  to  this  report  of  Agricola,  who  knew  Silbermann 
personally,  there  remains  no  doubt  that  we  are  indebted  to  the 
industrious  Silbermann  for  the  practical  construction  and  intro- 
duction of  the  pianoforte. 

CONSERVATISM   OPPOSING   PROGRESS. 

The  greatest  musicians  of  that  age,  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  in 
1737  and  Mozart  in  1777,  had  acknowledged  the  value  of  the 
invention  of  the  pianoforte,  but  still  a  long  time  transpired  before 
it  could  assume  the  rank  due  to  it  among  the  keyed  instruments  of 
that  age.  As  in  the  history  of  music,  we  can  here  plainly  see  the 


75 

strife  of  progress  against  conservatism,  the  resistance  of  established 
rules  against  new  principles.*  A  musical  critic  in  Leipsic  writes  in 
1782: — "In  the  grand  piano  (referring  to  the  harpsichord)  the 
heart  cannot  express  itself,  with  it  no  picture  can  be  completely 
produced,  as  light  and  shadows  cannot  be  expressed;  only  a 
clearly  denned  sketch  can  be  made.  It  is  adapted  either  to  bear 
or  to  carry  away  the  stream  of  music — in  short,  to  flow  on  with  it." 

GRAND    PIANO-FORTE. 

"The  forte  piano,"  that  writer  continues,  "stands  higher, 
especially  one  made  by  Frederici,  piano  maker  in  Gera,  or 
Stein,  piano  maker  in  Augsburg.  Here  the  heart  can  express 
itself  and  manifest  its  manifold  feelings  and  exhibit  light  and 
shadows.  But  it  is  deficient  in  shadings  and  minor  attractions, 
so  that  it  is  adapted  as  an  instrument  for  concerts  and  chamber 
music.  The  clavichord,  however,  stands  highest  of  all.  Although 
on  account  of  its  nature  excluded  from  the  concert  hall  it  is  the 
companion  of  the  recluse.  Here  I  can  reproduce  the  feelings  of 
my  heart,  can  shade,  fully  express,  drive  away  and  melt  away  a  tone 
through  all  its  swellings." 

He  closes  his  remarks  as  follows: — "In  order  to  judge  a 
virtuoso  one  must  listen  to  him  while  at  the  clavichord,  not 
at  the  forte  piano,  and  least  of  all  at  the  grand  piano."  (Harpsi- 
chord.) 

Forkel,  in  his  "Musical  Almanac"  of  1782,  prefers  the  clavi- 
chord to  all  other  keyed  instruments,  although  he  praises  greatly 
the  fine  execution  and  the  finely  shaded  playing  on  a  pianoforte 
made  by  Spath. 

OLD    TIME    MUSICAL   CRITICISM. 

The  poet  and  musician,  Ch.  Fr.  Daniel  Schubart,  in  1785  thus 
expresses  himself: — "The  musical  coloring  cannot  be  executed  on 

*"So  giebt  der  anonyme '  Verfasser  des  Musicalischen  Handbuches  aitf  das  Jahr  1782, 
welches  in  '  Alethinopel'  (Leipzig)  gleichzeitig  mil  dem  Musicalischen  Almanack  (von  Forkel) 
in  Schwickert'schen  Verlage  herauskam,  dem  Pianoforte  noch  nicht  den  Vorzug." — G.  F.  WEITZ- 
MAN,  Geschichte  des  Claviers,  page  275. 


76 

the  pianoforte  in  all  its  nuances,  but  the  clavichord,  this  solitary, 
melancholy  and  inexpressibly  sweet  instrument,  if  it  is  made  by  a 
master,  is  preferable  to  the  Grand  and  Fortepiano  through  the 
pressure  of  the  finger,  through  the  swinging  and  vibrating  of  the 
strings,  through  the  strong  and  soft  touch  of  the  hand,  the  increase 
and  decrease  of  tone,  the  melting  under  the  fingers  of  the  player, 
expiring  trill  of  the  portamento,  in  short  all  expressions  of  feeling 
can  be  visibly  manifested." 

We  see  that  long  after  the  general  introduction  and  use  of  the 
pianoforte,  the  clavichord  was  preferred. 

Silbermann's  pianofortes  in  the  beginning  seem  all  to  have 
been  made  in  wing  shape. 

Of  Charles  E.  Frederici  (died  1779),  of  Gera,  one  of  the 
oldest  makers  of  such  instruments,  it  is  reported  that  he  made 
them  in  clavichord,  or  square  form  also,  and  that  he  called  them 
by  the  distinguishing  name  of  "Fortbien."  On  account  of  their 
excellent  workmanship,  we  are  assured  that  they  were  scattered 
over  half  the  globe. 

The  pianofortes  which  John  Adam  Spath  (died  1796)  in 
Regensburg  made  and  sold  for  forty  ducats  were  also  wing  shaped. 
They  were  highly  esteemed  in  Germany.  The  instruments  of 
Johann  Andreas  Stein  of  Augsburg,  (died  1792,)  far  surpassed 
them,  however.  When  Mozart  had  become  acquainted  with  these 
instruments  he  selected  them  especially  for  his  performances,  and 
thereby  brought  them  into  public  favor  and  the  widest  circulation. 
Being  in  Augsburg  in  October,  1777,  he  was  introduced  to  the 
pianos  of  Stein. 

MOZART'S    FAVORITE    INSTRUMENT. 

Stein's  newly  contrived  pianoforte  escapement  appears  to  have 
charmed  Mozart.  In  a  letter  to  his  father  he  refers  to  the  evenness 
of  its  touch,  saying  that  "the  action  never  'blocks'  and  never 
fails  to  sound — as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  other  pianos.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  never  sounds  too  long,  and  the  machine  pressed 


77 

by  the  knee  (to  act  as  a  foot  pedal)  is  prompt  to  raise  the  dampers, 
or  on  discontinuing  the  pressure  ever  so  little  is  as  prompt  to  let 
them  down  upon  the  strings  again." 

The  Stein  escapement  differs  from  Cristofori's  and  the  English 
action  in  the  fact  that  the  axis  of  the  hammer  changes  its  position 
with  the  rising  of  the  key,  the  hopper  (Ausloser)  becoming  a 
fixture  at  the  back  of  the  key.  From  this  difference  a  radical 
change  of  touch  took  place,  and  an  extreme  lightness  became  the 
characteristic  of  the  Stein  action,  as  developed  by  Andreas 
Streicher,  of  Vienna,  Stein's  son-in-law,  who,  in  1794,  improved 
and  finally  established  the  great  renown  of  the  Viennese  piano- 
fortes. 

Returning  to  Mozart,  his  concert  grand  in  the  Mozarteum  at 
Salzburg  is  a  small  five-octave  instrument  with  black  natural  keys 
and  white  sharps  made  by  Anton  Walter,  who  became  in  the  end 
Mozart's  favorite  maker. 

The  merits  of  establishing  German  pianoforte  making  belongs 
to  Stein,  whose  inventive  talent  and  artistic  devotion  were  dis- 
played in  the  good  instruments  he  made,  which  by  1790  at  latest 
were  adopted  as  models  both  in  North  and  South  Germany,  as  the 
two  grand  pianos  formerly  belonging  to  Queen  Louisa,  made  by 
Huhn,  organ  builder  of  Berlin,  and  preserved  in  memory  of  him 
at  Potsdam,  unmistakably  show.  One  of  these  instruments,  and 
apparently  the  older  one,  bears  no  name  outside,  but  internal  ex- 
amination shows  that  the  maker  was  the  same  who  made  the  1790 
one.  Both  closely  resemble  Mozart's  piano,  by  Walter,  of  Salz- 
burg, and  the  original  model  by  Stein  of  1780. 

A   FAMILY   OF   PIANO    MAKERS. 

The  Stein's  were  a  family  of  pianoforte  makers  and  players. 
They  consisted  of  the  father,  Johann  Andreas;  his  two  sons, 
Matthaus  Andreas,  Friedrich,  and  a  daughter,  Maria  Anna, 
known  as  Nanette,  who  in  1794  married  Streicher  and  was  really 


the  most  prominent  of  the  group.  Though  Streicher  ultimately 
succeeded  to  the  business,  which  had  been  removed  from  Augs- 
burg to  Vienna,  his  name  does  not  appear  for  several  years  in 
connection  with  it.  The  firm,  as  late  as  1801,  was  "  Geschwister 
Stein,"  subsequently  "Nanette  Stein"  only,  which  appears  as  the 
maker's  name  on  a  grand  piano  with  six  pedals,  existing  (1882) 
in  Windsor  Castle. 

Nanette  Stein  was  born  January  2,  1769,  at  Augsburg.  When 
barely  eight  she  played  to  Mozart  on  his  visit  to  Augsburg  in 
1777,  and  in  spite  of  the  bad  musical  habits  she  had  contracted 
he  said  of  her,  "She  may  do  yet  for  she  has  genius."  Her  talent 
and  capacity  were  so  obvious  that  her  father  early  initiated  her 
into  the  details  of  his  business,  and  on  his  death,  February  29, 
1792,  she  carried  it  on  in  conjunction  with  her  brother,  Matthaus 
Andreas  Stein,  with  a  decision  and  energy  almost  masculine. 
In  1793  she  married  Johann  Andreas  Streicher,  an  excellent 
pianist  and  teacher  from  Stuttgart,  and  then  her  husband  and 
mother  moved  to  Vienna. 

The  new  firm  of  Nanette  &  Andreas  Stein  was  established. 
In  1802  the  brother  and  sister  dissolved  partnership  and  setting 
up  for  themselves  as  "Matthaus  Andreas  Stein"  and  "Nanette 
Streicher,  nee  Stein."  Both  firms  endeavored  to  perfect  their 
instruments  in  every  possible  way,  while  still  adhering  to  the 
traditions  of  their  father,  and  Stein,  of  Vienna,  became  as  cele- 
brated as  Stein,  of  Augsburg  had  been.  Nanette  Streicher  was  at 
once  an  energetic  and  capable  woman  of  business,  a  pianist  of  re- 
markable excellence,  a  person  of  great  cultivation  and  a  model 
wife  and  mother.  Her  name  is  closely  connected  with  that  of 
Beethoven.  It  is  well  known  that  she  did  much  to  help  him  in 
his  domestic  arrangements,  lightened  the  burden  of  his  house- 
keeping and  even  looked  after  his  bodily  health.  Thayer,  in  his 
work  on  Beethoven,  says: — "In  May,  Beethoven,  on  the  advice 
of  his  medical  men,  went  to  Baden,  hither  he  was  followed  by  his 
friend,  Mme.  Streicher,  who  remained  at  Baden  for  the  summer 


79 

and  took  charge  of  his  lodgings  and  clothes,  which  appears  to 
have  been  in  a  deplorable  state.  On  his  return  to  Vienna  the 
Streichers  continued  their  friendly  services,  procured  him  two  good 
servants  and  otherwise  looked  after  his  interests.  These  servants 
remained  with  him  for  a  year  or  two,  and  this  was  probably  the 
most  comfortable  time  of  the  last  half  of  Beethoven's  life." 

BEETHOVEN'S    CLEVER    PATRONESS. 

Beethoven,  as  well  as  Mozart,  always  showed  a  preference  for 
the  pianofortes  made  by  Stein  and  his  daughter  Nanette.  Thayer 
has  unearthed  a  record  of  Pastor  Junker,  showing  that  Beethoven, 
in  1791,  when  residing  at  Bonn,  always  used  an  instrument  of 
Stein.  It  is  claimed  by  those  knowing  the  history  of  the  grand 
piano  made  by  Nanette  Streicher,  forming  one  of  the  collection 
of  M.  Steinert,  as  illustrated  here,  that  it  was  furnished  by  the 
maker  to  her  friend  Beethoven  for  his  concerts  and  during  his 
many  wanderings  away  from  home,  that  he  enjoyed  playing  upon 
that  particular  instrument,  and  that  Mme.  Streicher  kept  it  ex- 
clusively at  the  disposal  of  the  great  master  whenever  he  felt 
like  using  it. 

In  one  of  his  many  letters  to  Mme.  Streicher,  Beethoven  says: 
— "  Perhaps  you  do  not  know,  though  I  have  not  always  had  one 
of  your  pianos,  that  since  1809  I  have  invariably  preferred  yours." 

The  instrument  has  a  very  soft  and  sweet  tone,  and  no  true 
musician  will  fail  to  pay  a  silent  homage  to  an  instrument  used  by 
the  immortal  Beethoven,  and  as  such  it  will  always  remain  an  ob- 
ject of  reverence  not  only  for  the  great  genius  who  probably 
created  some  of  his  grandest  works  out  of  its  depths  of  harmonies, 
but  also  for  the  noble  woman  who  built  the  grand  instrument, 
and,  above  all,  who  served  the  master  in  his  domestic  afflictions, 
and  thus  sweetened  his  life  during  his  many  sufferings. 

A  German,  Johann  Zumpe,  transplanted  in  1766  the  Silber- 
mann  invention,  the  pianoforte,  to  London.  This  resonant  instru- 
ment, made  by  him  very  skillfully,  met  here  with  universal  favor, 


8o 

and  soon  attained  such  a  splendid  reputation  that  it  was  used  to 
embellish  a  benefit  performance.  On  a  theatre  programme  of 
May  1 6,  1767,  we  find  the  following: — 

"  End  of  Act  I. — Miss  Brickler  will  sing  a  favorite  song  from 
'Judith,'  accompanied  by  Mr.  Dibdin  on  a  new  instrument  called 
pianoforte." 

THE    PIANO   IN    LONDON. 

A  year  later  the  London  Bach — Johann  Christian  Bach  — 
played  in  a  concert  for  the  first  time  publicly  on  a  pianoforte. 
It  was  of  great  influence  for  the  growth  and  improvement  of  the 
pianoforte,  that  in  1775  Muzio  dementi  used  the  pianoforte  in  a 
concert  in  London,  not  only  with  great  success,  but  since  that 
time  adapted  his  brilliant  compositions  to  this  useful  instrument. 
The  mechanism  of  the  Silbermann  piano,  in  which  the  hammers, 
independent  of  the  key  and  over  them,  rest  on  a  particular  rail, 
was  especially  improved  by  Backer,  Stodart  and  Broadwood  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  new  invention  was  known  under  the  name 
of  "English  action." 

In  1768  Sebastian  Erhard  (he  afterward  changed  his  name  to 
Erard)  came  from  Strasburg  to  Paris.  He  entered  the  workshop 
of  a  piano  maker,  and  showed  himself  to  be  such  a  discreet,  enter- 
prising and  persevering  workman  that  his  reputation  soon  filled  all 
Paris.  At  the  wish  of  an  influential  patron,  the  Duchess  of 
Villeroy,  he  built  in  1777  his  first  instrument,  which  met  with  uni- 
versal applause  at  the  soirees  of  his  patron. 

PIANO   MAKING   IN    PARIS. 

About  this  time  also  John  Baptist  Erhard  came  to  Paris  and 
shared  from  that  time  all  the  labors  of  his  brother.  Soon  the 
piano  factory  erected  by  these  brothers  at  Paris  became  highly 
esteemed  and  patronized.  Sebastian,  inexhaustible  in  inventions, 
built  for  the  Queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  a  "piano  organise"  with 
two  keyboards,  of  which  one  operated  a  pianoforte  and  the  other 


8i 

an  organ,  and  on  which  a  "stop  expressive"  had  been  provided. 
A  second  stop  transported  the  instrument  as  much  as  three  semi- 
tones higher  or  lower. 

An  everlasting  name  in  the  history  of  piano  making  Erard 
made  for  himself  by  his  invention,  in  1823,  of  the  hammer 
mechanism  (double  repeating  action),  which  invention  has  since 
then  been  used  in  all  concert  grands  with  English  mechanism. 

John  Broad  wood  of  London,  as  early  as  1770,  represents  the 
English  School  of  pianoforte  building.  He  was  a  man  of 
inventive  genius  and  thereby  he  made  many  valuable  improve- 
ments in  the  piano.  His  sons  James  Shudi  and  Thomas 
Broadwood  likewise  contributed  greatly  to  give  the  Broadwood 
piano  its  world-wide  reputation. 

In  many  cities  of  Germany  distinguished  piano  makers  can  be 
found,  of  whom  Bluethner  of  Leipsic,  Schiedmeyer  of  Stuttgart; 
Kapps  of  Dresden,  Bechstein  of  Berlin  deserve  chief  mention. 

In  Austria,  the  most  prominent  builder  of  grand  pianos  at  the 
present  date  is  Ludwig  Boesendorfer  of  Vienna.  In  the  United 
States  of  America  good  pianos  were  made  already  in  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century.  The  names  of  John  Osborn  and  Alpheus 
Babcock,  both  of  Massachusetts,  may  be  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection. They  were  succeeded  by  Jonas  Chickering,  the  founder 
of  the  celebrated  house  of  Chickering  &  Sons. 

In  Philadelphia,  Conrad  Meyer  occupies  a  high  position  as  the 
inventor  of  an  iron  frame. 

In  Baltimore,  Knabe  &  Co.  holds  a  most  prominent  place 
amongst  its  Piano  builders. 

In  New  York,  Nuns  &  Clark,  Bacon  &  Raven,  Dunham  & 
Stoddard,  Hazleton  and  others  may  be  mentioned  as  makers  of 
good  instruments.  During  the  last  40  years,  however,  the  house 
of  Steinway  &  Sons  has  made  so  many  radical  improvements  in 
the  art  of  piano  building  as  to  completely  revolutionize  it,  and 
their  system  called  the  "  Steinway  System  "  has  been  adopted  all 
over  Europe,  being  considered  the  best. 


A  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  ATTAINMENTS 

OF 

THE  GREAT   PIANO-BUILDERS 

OF  THE 

AND   1 9$  CENTURIES. 


history  of  pianoforte  building  is  replete  with  almost 
as  many  celebrated  men  as  that  of  the  violin.  While  the 
latter  has  its  shining  lights  in  Caspar  di  Salo,  the  Amatis, 
Guarneris,  Stradivaris,  Stain er  and  others,  the  pianoforte  can 
enumerate  as  many  historical  names  amongst  its  builders.  To 
begin  with,  mention  must  be  made  of  Gottfried  Silbermann,  a 
member  of  a  family  of  organ,  clavichord,  harpsichord  and  piano- 
forte makers.  He  was  born  in  Frauenstein,  Germany,  1683. 
He  was  first  apprenticed  to  a  book-binder,  but  soon  left  him  and 
went  to  his  brother  Andreas,  at  Strasburg.  This  city  he  had  to 
quit  in  1707,  on  account  of  an  attempted  abduction  of  a  nun,  and 
then  returned  to  Frauenstein,  where  he  built  his  first  organ. 
Although  he  attained  great  celebrity  as  an  organ  builder,  he  became 
equally  renowned  as  a  maker  of  clavichords.  Philip  Emanuel 
Bach  used  one  for  nearly  half  a  century,  and  while  playing  on  the 
same,  he  excited  the  admiration  of  Dr.  Burney.  It  is  a  well  estab- 
lished historical  fact  that  Gottfried  Silbermann  was  the  first  maker 
of  pianofortes  in  Germany.  He  built  three  grand  pianos  for 
Frederick  the  Great,  for  his  castle  at  Potsdam,  where  they  still 
remain  to-day. 

Agricola  adds  the  following  to  the  history  of  the  piano: 
"Mr.  Gottfried  Silbermann  had  made  at  first  two  of  these 
instruments.  The  blessed  chapel  master,  Johann  Sebastian  Bach, 
had  seen  and  played  on  one  of  them.  He  had  praised  its  tone 
and  even  admired  it,  but  he  had  found  the  fault  that  in  its  high 
tones  it  was  too  weak,  and  that  it  was  too  hard  to  play.  Mr. 
Silbermann  had  heard  these  complaints  with  ill  grace,  and  had 


86 

been  angry  with  Mr.  Bach  for  a  long  time.  But  his  own  con- 
science told  him  that  Mr.  Bach's  criticisms  were  correct.  He 
came  to  the  conclusion,  it  must  be  said  to  his  glory,  not  to  make 
any  more  of  these  instruments,  but  to  work  hard  to  invent  some- 
thing to  do  away  with  the  faults  mentioned  by  Mr.  Bach.  On 
this  he  worked  many  years.  Finally,  after  Mr.  Silbermann  had  in 
fact  made  many  improvements,  he  sold  another  instrument  to  the 
Court  of  Rudolstadt,  and  shortly  afterward  one  to  His  Royal 
Majesty  the  King  of  Prussia,  and,  as  this  one  met  with  universal 
approval,  many  more.  He  even  had  the  praiseworthy  ambition 
to  exhibit  one  of  these  instruments  of  his  later  construction  to  the 
chapel  master,  Mr.  Bach,  and  to  have  him  examine  the  same, 
and  receive  from  him  his  utmost  approval." 

According  to  this  report  of  Agricola,  who  knew  Silbermann 
personally,  there  remains  no  doubt  that  we  are  indebted  to  the 
industrious  Silbermann  for  the  practical  construction  and  intro- 
duction of  the  piano. 

H'e  was  followed  by  Johann  Andreas  Stein,  born  at  Heides- 
heim,  1728.  Although  nothing  is  known  of  his  early  career,  he  is 
known  to  have  lived  in  Paris  in  1758.  He,  like  Silbermann,  was 
a  builder  of  organs,  clavichords  and  harpsichords,  and  later  on  of 
pianofortes.  After  leaving  Paris  he  became  organist  of  the  Bar- 
fusser-Kirche  at  Augsburg,  and  while  there  he  built  the  celebrated 
organ  of  that  church,  as  well  as  the  organ  of  the  Kreuz  Kirche. 
As  a  pianoforte  builder  he  justly  deserves  the  name  of  "the  father 
of  the  German  school,"  for  the  reason  while  Silbermann  adopted 
the  action  used  by  Christofori,  the  real  inventor  of  the  pianoforte, 
Stein  invented  an  action  totally  different  and  more  simple.  The 
Stein  escapement  differs  from  Christofori's  and  the  English  action, 
in  the  fact  that  the  axis  of  the  hammer  changes  its  position  with 
the  rising  of  the  key,  the  hopper,  ( Ausloser)  becoming  a  fixture  at 
the  back  of  the  key.  From  this  difference  a  radical  change  of 
touch  took  place,  and  an  extreme  lightness  became  the  character- 
istic of  the  Stein  action,  as  developed  by  Andreas  Streicher,  of 


8? 

Vienna,  Stein's  son-in-law,  who,  in  1794,  improved  and  finally 
established  the  great  renown  of  the  Viennese  pianos.  Stein  was 
also  the  originator  of  the  Kneepedal,  called  the  genouilliere, 
which  preceeded  the  foot  pedal  and  served  to  raise  the  dampers. 
He  also  invented  the  shifting  of  the  keyboard,  whereby  the 
hammer,  instead  of  striking  three  strings,  only  strikes  one,  and 
this  "una  corda"  he  named  Spinettchen.  Mozart  was  a  great 
admirer  of  Stein's  pianos,  and  in  his  historical  letter  to  his  father, 
he  speaks  at  length  of  its  evenness  of  touch  and  remarkable  tone. 

As  hereinbefore  stated,  Johann  Andreas  Streicher,  son-in-law 
of  Stein,  his  wife,  the  celebrated  Nanette  and  Stein's  two  sons, 
Andre  and  Frederick,  moved  to  Vienna  in  1793.  Streicher  him- 
self was  an  excellent  musician  and  professor  of  music,  renowned  for 
his  learning  and  his  great  friendship  for  Schiller.  This  family 
while  in  Vienna,  made  many  improvements  in  the  Stein  piano, 
and  their  piano,  the  Streicher  piano,  attained  a  world-wide  repu- 
tation. In  England,  John  Broadwood  of  London  made  many 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  the  pianoforte.  He  changed 
the  customary  construction  of  the  square  piano  by  removing  the 
wrest-plank  holding  the  tuning  pins,  from  the  right  hand  side  as 
in  the  old  clavichord,  to  the  back  of  the  instrument.  He  also 
introduced  the  division  of  the  bridge  on  the  sound  board  of  the 
grand  piano.  His  son,  James  Shudi  and  Thomas  Broadwood 
also  invented  many  improvements  in  the  construction  of  the  piano. 
In  France,  Sebastian  Erard  constructed  in  1809  a  repetition  grand 
piano  action,  and  also  invented  the  inverted  or  upward  bearing 
bridge  at  the  wrest-plank.  Ignatz  Pleyel  founded  in  1807,  in 
connection  with  his  son  Camille,  a  piano  factory  in  Paris.  Their 
pianos  were  noted  for  their  sympathetic  tone,  and  for  offering  to 
the  performer  such  tone  colors  as  to  highten  the  expression  of 
the  composition.  Chopin  thus  expresses  himself  on  the  Erard 
and  Pleyel  pianos: 

"Quand  je  suis  mal  dispose,  je  jour  sur  un  piano  d'Erard  et 
j'y  trouve  facilement  un  son  fait.  Mais  quand  je  me  sens  en 


88 

verve  et  assez  fort,  pour  trouver  mon  propre  son  a  moi,  il  me  faut 
un  Piano  de  Pleyel." 

In  Germany,  in  1855,  Frederick  Wilhelm  Carl  Bechstein  estab- 
lished a  pianoforte  factory  in  Berlin.  Hitherto  the  north  German 
piano  was  far  inferior  to  the  Viennese  system,  but  Bechstein,  by 
adopting  the  American  system  of  iron  frames  and  the  English 
action,  constructed  instruments  that  became  celebrated.  Ignatz 
Boesendorfer  established  a  factory  in  Vienna  in  1828.  He 
strengthened  his  instruments  in  their  vital  parts  to  such  an  extent, 
that  Liszt  in  his  early  career  found  them  only  adequate  for  the 
many  demands  for  his  new  powerful  school.  His  son  Ludwig 
succeeded  him  in  1859  and  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  his  father, 
and  by  making  many  new  improvements,  built  only  grand  pianos 
noted  for  the  strength  and  purity  of  tone  and  elasticity  of  action, 
and  his  instruments  to-day  are  not  surpassed  by  those  of  any 
builder  in  Germany  and  Austria. 

In  the  United  States  of  America,  Benjamin  Crehore  of  Milton, 
Mass.,  a  suburb  of  Boston,  built  excellent  square  pianos  in  1798. 
His  instruments  were  constructed  according  to  the  English  system. 
Although  piano  building  at  that  time  was  something  new  in 
America,  yet  it  is  well  established  that  this  little  shop  was  the 
training  school  of  such  men  as  John  Osborn,  and  of  the  two 
brothers  Lewis  and  Alpheus  Babcock,  who  served  their  appren- 
ticeship there.  The  instruments  of  these  latter  makers  were  not 
only  the  equal  of  the  celebrated  London  makers,  such  as  Broad- 
wood,  Longman,  Broderip  and  dementi,  but  even  surpassed 
them  in  many  respects,  as  shown  by  instruments  still  in  existence. 
The  Babcocks  made  pianos  in  Boston  as  early  as  1810.  John 
Osborn  in  the  same  place  in  1815.  In  1819,  Jonas  Chickering 
became  an  apprentice  in  Osborn's  shop.  James  Stewart,  a  Scotch- 
man, became  Osborn's  partner  in  1820,  and  after  quarrelling  with 
him,  entered  into  a  copartnership  with  Jonas  Chickering  in  1823, 
which  partnership  was  dissolved  two  years  later.  In  1829  John 
Mackay  became  Chickering's  partner.  The  instruments  of  that 


89 

firm  and  their  successors  were  noted  all  over  the  United  States  as 
most  durable,  and  for  possessing  great  musical  capacities.  They 
were  prolific  in  inventions.  In  1837  they  constructed  a  square 
piano  with  a  complete  iron  frame,  with  the  exception  of  the  wrest-pin 
block,  and  afterwards  they  followed  the  same  system  in  grand 
pianos.  Their  grand  pianos  at  that  period  were  unsurpassed  by 
any  foreign  make. 

The  principle  of  using  iron  frames  had  been  previously  (1825) 
invented  by  Alpheus  Babcock,  and  by  Conrad  Meyer  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  owed  its  origin  probably  to  the  climatical  conditions 
and  changes  of  the  country.  An  event  of  the  greatest  importance 
is  the  construction  of  an  upright  piano  by  John  Isaac  Hawkins, 
an  Englishman,  in  Philadelphia  in  1800.  This  upright  piano  was 
constructed  with  an  iron  frame,  was  braced  with  iron  rods  and  had 
a  metal  bridge.  The  statistics  of  the  history  of  arts  and  industries 
of  the  United  States  in  1829,  show  that  2500  pianos  were  made 
during  that  year  of  the  aggregate  value  of  $750,000.  Of  these 
pianos  goo  were  made  in  Philadelphia,  800  in  New  York,  717  in 
Boston,  the  balance  in  Baltimore  and  minor  places.  In  New 
York  piano  making  received  an  impetus  from  emigrants  of  families 
of  piano  makers  from  Germany  and  England,  the  foremost  of 
whom  were  the  Geibs,  Nunns,  Kiersing,  Dubois  and  Stoddard:  they 
all  followed  the  English  system.  One  of  the  first  piano  makers  in 
Baltimore  was  Hiskey,  who  constructed  his  pianos  on  the  Vienna 
principle,  namely,  having  the  tuning  pins  above  the  keyboard,  a 
sounding-board  extending  over  the  whole  instrument,  and  an  iron 
plate  which  held  the  hitch-pins  for  the  strings.  He  also  applied 
four  or  five  pedals  to  his  square  piano  in  order  to  produce  the 
various  orchestral  effects,  so  much  desired  at  that  time  in  Europe. 

Baltimore,  on  account  of  its  geographical  position,  became 
the  chief  center  for  the  sale  of  pianos  to  the  Southern  states,  and 
became  early  noted  for  the  construction  of  excellent  pianos. 
Foremost  amongst  its  early  makers  Gaehle  may  be  mentioned. 
Although  built  on  the  German  system,  contained  the  English 


9° 

action.  He  formed  a  co-partnership  with  Knabe  under  the  name 
of  Knabe  and  Gaehle  in  1841.  After  their  dissolution  Knabe 
continued  the  manufacture  of  pianos,  and  built  up  such  a  demand 
for  his  instruments  in  the  Southern  states,  so  as  to  counterbalance 
the  progress  of  the  Chickering's  in  the  East.  Knabe  deserved 
his  success,  for  he  zealously  labored  to  improve  his  instruments. 

While  Baltimore  and  Boston  in  a  great  measure  monopolized 
the  piano  trade  of  the  United  States,  New  York,  although  it  had 
such  piano  makers  as  Bacon  and  Raven,  Stoddard  and  Dunham, 
Nunns  and  Clark,  occupied  a  very  subordinate  position,  which 
continued  until  the  establishment  in  business  of  a  family  of  piano- 
forte makers  from  Germany  in  1853,  namely  the  Steinway  family. 

Since  the  invention  of  the  pianoforte  in  1709,  it  has  undergone 
many  changes  and  many  improvements  have  been  made  in  its 
construction.  But  notwithstanding  all  these  facts,  a  careful  ex- 
amination of  the  modern  pianoforte  will  develop  many  defects  in 
its  intrinsic  musical  properties.  Unlike  the  violin,  'cello  or  the 
human  voice,  the  piano  does  not  possess  the  power  of  unlimited 
tone  prolongation.  It  furthermore  manifests  a  certain  monotony 
in  its  tone  nuances.  In  comparison  with  the  voice  or  stringed 
instruments,  its  tone  appears  cold  and  unsympathetic.  Its  tone 
being  produced  by  the  stroke  of  a  hammer,  naturally  dies  away 
nearly  as  soon  as  it  is  created.  It  is  not  within  the  limits  of  the 
hammer  to  modulate  each  tone,  and  the  performer,  unless  he  is  an 
artist,  can  hardly  overcome  this  natural  tendency  of  the  hammer. 
In  fact,  the  natural  condition  of  the  pianoforte  is  such,  that  its 
tones  cannot  be  increased  or  decreased  like  the  tones  of  the  voice, 
and  therefore  does  not  respond  to  the  requirements  of  true 
artistic  musical  nature  and  therein  lies  its  greatest  innate  deficiency. 
With  the  deficiencies  herein  mentioned,  the  piano  remains  the 
predominant  instrument  of  the  age  for  the  following  reasons, 
unlike  the  violin  and  the  human  voice  it  serves  to  produce  a 
complete  harmony  by  reason  of  its  unlimited  tone-compass, 
comprising  the  lowest  bass  tone  of  the  contra  basso  and  the 


91 

highest  tones  of  the  piccolo  flute,  thus  can  be  used  to  reproduce 
orchestral  compositions  by  one  performer  only.  Furthermore,  on 
account  of  the  producing  of  sound  by  means  of  hammers,  the 
piano  possesses  certain  dynamic  elements,  which  in  the  orchestra, 
are  attained  by  means  of  kettledrums,  basedrums  and  cymbals 
and  in  the  more  refined  parts,  by  means  of  brass  instruments. 
This  dynamic  element  produces  a  certain  feeling  of  rest  on  the 
nervous  constitution  of  the  piano  player,  and  thereby,  he  is 
enabled  to  continue  at  his  task  longer  than  at  any  other 
instrument. 

Aside  from  the  action,  the  most  essential  part  of  the  piano  is 
the  construction  of  the  sounding-board,  the  soul  of  every  musical 
instrument.  The  tone  of  the  pianoforte  depends  upon  the 
movement  and  variable  pressure  of  the  strings  at  the  point  of 
contact  with  the  bridge  by  which  their  vibrations  are  conveyed  to 
the  belly  or  sounding-board  to  be  intensified  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  fibres  of  this  elastic  support.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
science  of  acoustics  furnishes  no  fixed  laws  for  the  construction 
of  a  toneful  sounding-board,  but  leaves  it  to  experiments  only. 
The  difference  in  the  character  of  tone  of  pianofortes  by  different 
makers  depends  very  much  upon  variations  in  the  proportions, 
direction  of  the  grain  and  burring  of  the  belly. 

Aside  from  both  action  and  sounding-board  there  must  exist 
other  requirements  in  the  construction  of  the  piano,  which  lend 
the  instrument  a  singing  and  soul  inspiring  tone,  one  that  can 
express  all  the  sensations  of  the  heart,  the  lyric,  tragic  and 
pathetic  moods. 

While  there  have  been  no  improvements  made  during  the  last 
two  centuries  in  the  construction  of  the  violin  and  other  kindred 
stringed  instruments,  it  has  been  the  aim  of  pianoforte  builders 
during  that  same  period  to  excel  each  other  and  to  produce  an 
instrument  more  perfect  than  any  other  heretofore  known. 

As  before  mentioned,  New  York,  the  metropolis  of  this  country, 
up  to  1853  occupied  a  subordinate  place  in  the  production  of 


pianofortes.  It  received  its  first  impulse  in  that  direction  through 
Henry  Engelhard  Steinway  and  his  sons  Charles  and  Henry,  and 
later  on,  by  his  sons  William  and  C.  F.  Theodore. 

These  manifold  improvements  made  by  the  firm  of  Steinway 
in  the  building  of  pianos,  have  given  their  instruments  certain  vir- 
tues and  powers  never  before  possessed  by  instruments  of  other 
makers.  Through  their  efforts  the  defects  in  the  construction  of 
the  piano  hereinbefore  mentioned  have  been  greatly  eliminated. 
Formerly  only  the  greatest  artists  were  able  to  produce  on  the 
pianos  of  that  day  rich  and  sustaining  tone  colors.  Now  even 
the  amateur  and  unskillful  performer  on  a  Steinway  piano  can 
produce  such  effects  as  were  formerly  not  even  dreamed  of. 

Although  about  fifty  patents  have  been  granted  to  Steinway  & 
Sons  for  improvements  in  the  art  of  pianoforte  making,  it  will  be 
interesting  to  mention  only  the  following  most  important  ones: 

Overstrung  Scale,  Patent  No.  26,532,  December  2oth,  1859, 

Tubular  Action  Frame,  Patent  No.  81,306,  August  i8th,  1868. 

In  Uprights  and  Grands,  Patent  No.  93,647,  August  loth,  1869. 

The  latter  two  patents  were  granted  for  an  ingenious  invention 
to  strengthen  the  hammer  apparatus,  and  to  prevent  its  warping, 
due  to  atmospheric  influences. 

Duplex  Scale,  Patent  No.  126,848,  May  i4th,  1862. 

An  invention  to  control  and  utilize  the  acoustical  properties  of 
piano  strings.  By  its  means  a  rich,  sonorous,  and  pure  tone 
quality  is  produced. 

Capo  D'Astro  Bar,  Patent  No.  170,647,  Nov.  3oth,  1875,  in 
Grands. 

By  means  of  this  invention,  the  suspended  wrest-plank  can 
neither  be  raised  nor  depressed  by  the  great  tension  of  the  strings. 
Although  this  patent  was  granted  for  Grand  pianos,  it  has  been 
adopted  for  the  construction  of  Upright  pianos  also. 

Bent  Rim  Cases,  Patent  No.  204,106,  May  aist,  1878. 

By  this  new  method,  the  case  is  thoroughly  strengthened,  and 


93 

in  no  way  yields  to  the  immense  strain  of  the  strings,  while  at  the 
same  time,  it  allows  free  vibration  of  the  case  and  rims. 

Most  all  these  patents  emanated  from  the  inventive  genius  of 
Theodore  Steinway.  He  was  born  in  Seesen,  Germany,  in  1825. 
He  received  his  first  instructions  in  the  building  of  stringed  and 
keyed  instruments  from  his  father.  He  devoted  all  his  energy  to 
the  improvement  of  the  pianoforte,  and  his  success  in  that  art  is 
fully  described  in  a  letter  written  by  Liszt  in  1883,  which  reads  as 
follows:  "Your  new  Grand  piano  is  a  glorious  masterpiece  in 
power,  sonority,  singing  quality  and  perfect  harmonic  effects, 
affording  delight,  even  to  my  old  piano-weary  fingers."  He  died, 
65  years  old,  in  1889. 

His  nephew,  Frederick  Steinway,  who  devoted  himself  under 
the  teachings  of  his  uncle,  Theodore,  to  the  scientific  researches 
of  acoustics,  has  also  added  important  inventions  to  the  strengthen- 
ing of  the  piano,  which  consist  particularly  in  an  ingenious  combi- 
nation of  resonant  metal  framings,  which,  in  their  normal 
condition,  give  both  strength  and  a  special  tone  color  to  the 
instrument. 

Henry  Ziegler,  another  nephew  of  Theodore  Steinway,  also 
served  his  apprenticeship  under  his  uncle,  and  has  enlarged  the 
field  of  the  Steinway  system  of  piano-building.  He  is  both  a 
theoretical  and  practical  mechanic,  who  has  ventured  upon  the 
yet  unexplored  field  of  giving  the  sound-board  scientific  formation. 
Henry  Ziegler  and  Frederick  Steinway,  working  in  conjunction, 
have  imparted  to  the  Steinway  pianos  those  musical  characteristics 
which  make  it  famous  to-day. 

Although  the  piano  in  its  present  state  may  appear  perfect  to 
many,  yet  it  is  capable  of  being  still  more  perfected,  and  it  is 
earnestly  hoped  that  the  genius  of  improvement  which  has  changed 
the  simple  pianoforte  of  Silbermann  into  the  modern  Grand,  may 
not  rest,  but  may  continue  on  its  march  of  progress. 


THE   RENAISSANCE   OF 

JOH.   SEE.    BACH'S  METHOD 

OF  PLAYING  THE  CLAVICHORD. 


/N  the  winter  of  1840  Liszt  came  to  Leipsic  for  the  first 
time.  The  emporium  of  the  German  book-trade  at  that 
time  was  no  longer  Goethe's  "  Klein  Paris."  For,  at 
that  time,  it  represented  the  predominant  centre  of  German  music, 
the  stronghold  of  the  Romantics.  It  was  the  Leipsic  of  Felix 
Mendelssohn,  the  Leipsic  of  Schumann. 

Liszt,  at  that  time,  was  at  the  zenith  of  his  virtuosity.  Memo- 
rial coins  proclaimed  his  renown.  Their  inscription  was  (i  Nostri 
saeculi  clavichordi  orpheus!"  In  Leipsic  also,  as  everywhere 
else,  he  caused  showers  of  applause.  Artists  and  people  revolved 
in  a  Liszt-turmoil.  The  leader  of  the  first  was  no  less  person 
than  Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy.  Using  a  characteristic  ex- 
pression of  Beethoven,  "  Liszt's  playing  infused  holy  fire  into 
the  soul  of  Mendelssohn,  whose  great  artistic  mind  was  at  all 
times  impervious  to  narrow-minded  feelings  of  envy." 

Such  a  musical  festival  as  at  that  time  Goethe's  excellent 
friend,  Felix,  gave  in  honor  of  Liszt  could  only  be  arranged  by  a 
Mendelssohn.  They  were  without  exception  compositions 
unknown  to  the  guest,  that  were  brought  to  the  attention  of  Liszt. 
It  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  significance  that  Mendelssohn  could 
not  conceive  to  offer  to  this  celebrated  man  known  as  the  greatest 
pianist  of  the  nineteenth  century  from  all  his  talents  anything 
higher,  grander  and  more  appropriate  than  the,  at  that  time,  com- 
pletely unknown  work  of  a  long  forgotten  composer,  the  grand 
D -minor  concerto  for  three  pianos  by  Johann  Sebastian  Bach, 
composed  in  1730. 

Ferdinand  Hiller  and  Felix  Mendelssohn  were  the  performers; 
at  the  third  Grand,  Franz  Liszt  himself  presided.  Schumann  has 


9S 

written  a  report  concerning  this  greatest  mark  of  respect  to  the 
genius  of  Bach.  For,  was  there  anyone  more  gifted  to  write  a 
criticism  of  such  an  artistic  festival  than  an  artist  himself,  and 
moreover  an  artist  like  Robert  Schumann?  It  is  contained  in 
the  twelfth  volume  of  the  li Neuen  Zeitschrift"  where  anyone  may 
read  it.  Like  mostly  everything  written  by  Schumann,  it  offers 
even  to-day,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  half  a  century,  a  full 
enjoyment  of  things  gone  by. 

That  marvelous  time  of  that  early  period  is  repictured  in  it. 
That  time  when  German  politics  were  so  insignificant,  but  German 
Art  was  so  great — great  in  its  own  creations  and  perhaps  still 
greater  in  the  reawakening  of  the  creator  of  harmony,  the  great 
Sebastian  Bach.  Next  to  Zelter  we  have  to  thank  the  enthusiastic 
propaganda  of  Mendelssohn  for  this  artistic  feat.  It  is  forever 
inseparably  connected  with  his  name.  Characteristic  enough  for 
Mendelssohn  himself,  whom  a  mind  like  Hans  von  Billow  has 
distinguished  by  the  words:  "The  greatest  form  genius  since 
Mozart." 

During  his  whole  life  Mendelssohn  adhered  to  his  active 
veneration  for  Bach,  which  was  permeated  by  the  noblest  passion. 
His  advocacy  of  the  old  master  proved  most  effective  at  the  great 
national  music  festivals  of  the  lower  Rhine,  where  Bach  was 
hardly  known  by  name. 

Mendelssohn  in  January,  1838,  writes  as  follows  to  the  com- 
mittee in  Cologne:  "It  appears  to  me  more  important  to  have 
one  number  on  the  programme  this  year  by  means  of  which  this 
festival  distinguishes  itself  from  others,  and  whereby,  perhaps,  a 
step  in  advance  can  be  pointed  out.  For  this  purpose  I  consider 
it  indeed  necessary  to  include  the  name  of  Sebastian  Bach  in  the 
programme,  even  if  it  only  be  a  short  piece;  but  it  is  certainly  in 
time  that  at  these  festivals,  to  which  Handel  has  given  so  much 
renown,  also  that  other  immortal  master,  who  in  no  sense  stands 
below  any  other  master,  but  in  many  stands  above  them,  should 
no  longer  be  forgotten.  The  same  objections  that  may  now  be 


99 

raised  against  Bach  must  have  existed  in  former  years  against 
Handel's  works.  Because,  if  once  one  of  his  works  is  produced, 
it  will  not  be  difficult  to  find  it  beautiful  and  to  produce  it  again. 
There  must  be  a  beginning." 

And  in  the  same  manner  as  Mendelssohn  at  these  great  national 
music  festivals  on  the  lower  Rhine  reinstated  the  German  old- 
master  victoriously  into  his  rights,  he  conducted  with  untiring  en- 
thusiasm at  all  points  his  great  contest  for  the  Renaissance  of  Bach, 
the  battle  of  the  artist  for  the  artist !  And  he  only  rested  when  the 
accumulations  of  oblivion  were  completely  removed  from  this  in- 
destructible memnoncolumn,  which  had  so  wonderfully  heralded 
the  future  dawn  of  German  classical  music  by  its  divine  sounds. 

Five  years  before  his  death,  Mendelssohn  had  the  pleasure  to 
behold  the  unveiling  of  the  monument  of  Sebastian  Bach,  the 
magnificent  old  "  Periickengesicht "  (wig-face)  as  he  often  called 
it  (1842),  and  the  costs  of  which  he  had  earned  by  his  own  play- 
ing. Already  two  years  before  that  time  he  had  arranged  an 
organ  concert  in  the  Thomas  Church  for  that  purpose.  He  gave 
it  "solissimo,"  and  had  practised  for  the  same  for  many  weeks 
with  the  greatest  diligence,  so  that,  as  he  expresses  it  in  a  letter  to 
his  mother  "he  could  hardly  stand  on  his  feet,  and  only  executed 
pedal  passages  on  the  street." 

Less,  in  fact  hardly  known,  is  the  extraordinary  influence 
which  Mendelssohn's  father  exerted  on  these  efforts  of  his  son. 
The  time  will  come  which  will  deal  more  explicitly  with  this 
excellent  man,  who  in  his  altogether  too  great  modesty  is  totally 
eclipsed  by  the  greatness  of  his  father,  the  philosopher,  Moses 
Mendelssohn,  the  glory  of  his  son  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy. 

Since  that  time  fully  fifty  years  have  passed  by,  and  with  the 
great  master  of  the  Romantic,  the  old  Sebastian  survives  to-day 
in  all  his  power  and  glory.  In  fact  it  may  be  stoutly  maintained 
that  Bach  now  really  begins  to  live,  and  with  him  and  depending 
upon  him  without  being  limited  in  time,  the  elements  of  true  and 
genuine  art  will  continue  to  all  eternity. 


Before  his  surpassing  greatness  all  those  who  came  after  him 
now  bow  down. 

Weber  maintains  boldly  that  the  Classics  admit  the  following 
about  Bach :  "  That  Mozart  never  would  have  risen  to  his  great- 
ness without  the  stairs  built  by  Bach." 

Another  expression  of  Weber's  which  is  more  dogmatical  and 
of  more  significance  for  our  theme  we  wish  to  annex  here.  "The 
art  to  play  Bach's  compositions  effectually  has  been  perhaps  com- 
pletely lost,  inasmuch  as  the  enjoyment  to  be  expected  therefrom 
neither  lies  on  the  surface  nor,  because  on  account  of  the  richness  • 
of  the  harmonic  construction,  the  outer  melodious  contour  can 
appear  so  prominent  as  is  desired  by  our  spoilt  ear."  The  earnest 
movement  which  tries  to  produce  at  present  Bach's  works  in  their 
artistic  interpretation  may  be  termed  in  these  words  of  C.  M.  von 
Weber.  It  represents  in  the  present  also  one  of  the  most  interes- 
ting questions  of  art  on  which  subject  Spitta  in  his  unsurpassable 
Bach  Biography  in  truly  wonderful  manner  has  said:  "Bach's 
clavier  compositions  represent  an  inheritance  which  was  destined 
to  be  accepted  by  us  Moderns  in  its  full  scope,  as  an  inestimable 
present  for  a  period  whose  musical  Spring  does  not  flow  any  more 
in  its  former  profuseness,  an  unmovable  rock  in  the  turbid  commo- 
tion of  passionate  aberrations,  and  for  all  those  who  are  still  able 
to  hear  an  earnest  admonition  not  to  forget  the  dignity  of  art ! " 

I  found  a  very  noticeable  indication  of  this  question  of  art  in 
a  letter  from  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy's  father,  who  in  1835,  wrote 
to  his  Felix,  to  Diisseldorf,  as  follows: — "  Your  intention  to  restore 
Handel  in  his  original  form  has  caused  me  to  reflect  on  the  latter 
instrumentation  of  his  works.  Generally  the  question  arises, 
whether  Handel,  if  he  would  compose  to-day,  would  not  use  all 
the  musical  means  of  the  present  day  for  composing  his  oratorios, 
which,  in  fact,  means  nothing  more  or  less  whether  that  artistically 
moral  form  to  which  we  give  the  appellation  Handel,  would 
assume  to-day  the  same  outer  form  which  it  has  had  one  hundred 
years  ago,  or,  in  an  enlarged  meaning,  whether  the  world  appears 


to-day  as  it  has  appeared  one  hundred  years  ago.  This  question 
answers  itself.  The  question,  however,  must  be  put  in  another 
way,  namely,  whether  Handel  to-day  would  compose  oratorios 
at  all  ?  Well, — hardly,  if  they  must  be  written  to-day,  as  has  been 
the  fashion  lately.  From  what  I  say  to  you,  you  can  learn  how 
confidentially  and  relyingly  I  foresee  your  work,  which  without 
doubt  will  solve  the  question  of  uniting  old  thoughts  with  new 
methods,  otherwise  no  result  would  be  effected,  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  the  painters  of  the  nineteenth  century  would  only  make 
themselves  laughable  if  they  would  represent  the  religiosity  of  the 
fifteenth  century  with  long  arms  and  legs,  and  with  a  perspective 
placed  on  the  head.  To  me  these  new  means,  as  also  everything 
in  the  world  seems  to  have  come  at  the  proper  time,  in  order  to 
support  these  inner  motives  that  are  growing  weaker,  for  at  the 
height  of  the  religious  sense  at  which  Bach,  Handel  and  their 
contemporaries  are  found,  they  certainly  needed  no  orchestra  for 
their  oratorios." 

These  certainly  very  noteworthy  explanations  of  the  banker 
Mendelssohn  lead  directly  to  the  question  of  art  indicated  above. 
I  shall,  however,  later  on  find  occasion  to  speak  of  the  striking 
contradiction  by  the  preraphaelitish  school  of  painting  of  the  final 
remarks  relating  to  the  paintings  of  the  fifteenth,  century.  The 
repeatedly  stated  question  of  art  "is  the  reproduction  of  Joh.  Seb. 
Bach's  clavier  compositions  by  our  modern  artists  completely  con- 
genial?" remains  the  subject  of  our  consideration.  I  do  not 
believe  that  this  can  be  answered  with  yes  without  some  reserva- 
tions. 

For  whatever  relates  to  our  modern  reproduction  of  Bach's 
clavier  compositions,  it  must  be  admitted  that  hitherto  the  strictest 
historical  research  has  not  been  able  to  become  closely  allied  to 
the  same,  even  if  attempted  by  our  greatest  virtuosos.  The  student 
of  Bach  must  absolutely  pre-suppose  that  the  most  numerous 
clavier  compositions  of  the  old  master  were  written  for  the  clavi- 
chord and  cembalo,  and  that  the  clavichord  especially  was  the 


instrument  to  which  Joh.  Seb.  Bach  assigned  a  quite  distinguished 
preeminence  before  all  other  keyed  instruments  of  that  time. 
This  predilection  of  Bach  for  the  clavichord  must  be  still  more 
considered  as  of  great  importance,  because  we  know  it  to  be  a  well 
established  fact  that  the  master,  during  his  whole  life  was  accus- 
tomed to  ask  in  relation  to  his  instruments  for  many  very  far- 
going  requirements,  and  even  such  that  could  only  be  satisfied 
with  difficulty.  In  Arnstadt  and  Miihlhausen,  in  Coethen,  Wei- 
mar, also  in  Leipsic,  in  fact  everywhere,  the  different  church  organs 
gave  him  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  He  nowheres  finds  an  instru- 
ment whose  capacity  reaches  the  level  of  the  artistic  sensitiveness 
of  his  artistic  craving. 

The  records  of  Bach's  complaints  on  this  subject  are  still  in 
existence.  They  teach  us  that  Bach  had  more  than  anyone  else 
penetrated  the  spirit  of  organ  building  and  that  he  not  only  under- 
stood how  to  criticise,  but  moreover  could  demonstrate  and  order 
how  to  obviate  the  deficiency  and  error.  Thus  the  records  of  the 
free  city  Miihlhausen,  in  1708,  contain  the  following:  "The  new 
organist,  Mr.  Bach,  has  reported  different  defects  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  organ  in  the  church  of  St.  Blasius,  and  also  has  handed 
in  a  written  plan  how  to  remedy  the  same." 

Yes,  according  to  the  records  of  the  Liebfrauen  church  in 
Halle,  Bach  all  alone  conceived  the  plan  for  building  a  new  and 
grand  organ,  which  the  celebrated  organ  builder,  Christof  Cuntius, 
had  acknowledged  through  his  own  signature  as  lawfully  proper 
for  making,  and  which  he  in  fact  contracted  to  build  for  the  price 
of  6,300  Rixthaler. 

Can  anyone  therefore  wonder  that  the  University  of  Leipsic 
in  1717  sent  extra  for  Bach  while  in  Coethen,  in  order  to  have 
him  thoroughly  examine  the  new  organ  of  the  Pauliner  church,  in 
presence  of  two  witnesses  only? 

In  the  use  of  stringed  instruments  Bach  did  not  demand  less 
requirements.  It  is  well  known  that  he  himself  played  the  viola, 
and  thereby  enjoyed  amongst  his  fellow-players  the  freest  super- 


103 

• 

vision  over  the  execution  of  the  different  parts.  Thereby  he  made 
the  unpleasant  discovery  that  not  one  of  the  cellists  (Viola  de 
Cambists)  was  adequate  for  the  execution  of  his  figured  Bassos. 
According  to  some  anecdotes  such  deficencies  were  often  very 
apt  to  cause  a  serious  unpleasantness  to  the  delinquent.  For  in 
everything  that  pertained  to  art  Bach  possessed  a  devilish  hasty 
temper,  and  it  is  related  that  he  sometimes  tore  his  mighty  wig 
from  his  head  in  order  to  hurl  it  against  that  of  a  stupid  pupil. 
Certainly  such  an  insult  he  could  not  give  to  his  cellists,  especially 
as  he  knew  too  well  that  the  fault  in  this  case  was  not  of  the 
player,  but  was  due  to  the  size  and  construction  of  the  violoncello 
of  that  time.  It  is  now  noteworthy  and  very  characteristic  for 
our  description,  that  Bach  knew  most  thoroughly  to  obviate  this 
difficulty  through  the  invention  of  a  totally  new  stringed  instru- 
ment, the  "  viola  pomposa." 

Bach,  in  questions  pertaining  to  the  spirit  and  reproduc- 
tion of  his  works,  was  not  only  not  conservative,  but  more- 
over really  revolutionary,  and  thus,  besides  other  technical 
accomplishments,  he  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  a  musical 
clock  and  of  an  improved  keyed  instrument,  the  so-called  Lauten- 
clavicymbel. 

Therefore,  it  can  be  maintained  with  apodictic  certainty  that 
Bach  was  always  accustomed  to  claim  the  highest  pretensions  in 
regard  to  the  capacity  of  all  instruments  used  by  him,  and  that 
he  had  without  doubt  weighty  artistic  reasons  for  preferring  in 
such  a  distinguished  way  the  clavichord  for  the  execution  of 
clavier  compositions.  The  reasons  for  this  embrace  in  the  first 
place,  the  fact  that  the  clavichord  must  by  no  means  be  considered 
as  a  primitive  precursor  which  is  subordinate  to  the  later  construc- 
tions of  keyed  instruments.  In  fact  it  demands  a  prominent 
place  in  the  line  of  all  piano  instruments  even  to  the  present  time, 
not  only  as  a  keyed  instrument  of  quite  peculiar  tone  productive- 
ness, but  more  especially  on  account  of  its  unique  tone  color  and 
power  of  inspiration. 


104 

These  matters,  however,  have  been  explained  at  length  else- 
where in  this  work,  and  therefore  it  is  sufficient  to  remark  here, 
that  accordingly  the  method  of  playing  the  clavichord  can  exhibit 
a  whole  array  of  very  important  and  distinguishing  differences 
from  that  of  the  Hammerclavier,  and  completely  from  the  method 
of  playing  the  modern  pianofortes.  In  order  to  illustrate  this 
fact  by  a  few  examples,  I  would  like  to  remark  that  at  the 
clavichord,  the  feeling  of  the  player  is  more  capable  of  being  car- 
ried out,  for  the  reason  that  the  different  degrees  of  the  intensity 
of  the  touch,  find  expression  not  only  in  the  power,  but  also  in 
the  song-like  pitch  of  the  tone.  Certainly  the  pitch  of  the  tone 
forms  itself  by  the  striking  of  the  tangent  against  the  string.  But 
in  the  same  manner  as  on  the  violin,  the  accent  of  the  player 
increases  the  pressure  on  the  finger-board,  if  the  tangent  rises 
higher,  then  the  string  extends  itself  and  thereby  produces  that 
trembling,  chromatic,  echoing  sound,  to  which  even  the  modern 
ear  cannot  deny  the  oscillating  property  of  a  deeper  soulful  sen- 
sation. 

Therefore  there  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  in  this  respect  alone 
we  run  across  a  technic  which  has  been  lost,  and  whoever  has 
heard  one  of  our  virtuosos  attempt  to  play  the  clavichord  under- 
standingly,  must  at  least  admit  that  this  technic  is  very  capable 
of  being  resuscitated.  In  fact,  this  superb  responsiveness  of  the 
clavichord  has  encouraged  a  great  number  of  attempts  of  produc- 
tion, which  cannot  be  attained  on  any  other  instrument.  These 
naturally  are  completely  lost  as  soon  as  any  attempts  are  made  to 
produce,  unconditionally  and  without  consideration  on  other 
keyed  instruments,  compositions  which  are  written  for  the  clavi- 
chord. Otherwise,  in  order  to  introduce  another  reason,  we  assert 
that  the  legato-bows  in  Bach's  clavichord  works  have  quite  a  dif- 
ferent significance  from  those  in  modern  piano-playing.  Because 
legato-playing  on  the  clavichord  can  only  be  accomplished  by  an 
increased  pressure  of  the  fingers,  and  thereby  a  crescendo  is 
always  caused. 


I05 

Therefore  Bach's  legato-bo\vs  signify  always  a  sign  of  expres- 
sion for  the  performers. 

At  every  step,  however,  we  meet  such  differences.  What, 
therefore,  is  the  natural  consequence?  None  other  but  that 
the  interpretation  of  Bach  on  his  contemporaneous  keyed  instru- 
ments must  lead  to  essentially  different  musical  sound  effects 
and  sound  mixtures  from  those  that  can  be  attained  on  the 
pianoforte.  There  is  no  question  which  of  these  two  may  be 
more  instructive. 

Is  there  any  necessity  in  our  period  of  historical  justice  and 
seriousness  of  conception,  to  enter  the  arena  in  order  to  maintain 
that  Joh.  Seb.  Bach,  "the  Orpheus  of  the  clavichord  of  his  period," 
may  demand  that  he  should  be  studied  and  investigated  on  his 
own  most  peculiar,  favorite  instrument  ? 

We  must  permit  the  great  old  master  to  defend  his  cause  with 
his  own  peculiar  power,  and  especially  with  the  means  of  art  and 
the  technique  of  his  period.  Far  more  pressing  than  in  painting, 
we  need  in  the  field  of  music  a  peculiar  art  of  restoration,  in  the 
same  manner  as  such  one  has  existed  for  a  long  time  for  the 
plastic  arts. 

Who  will  dare  to-day  to  whitewash  the  dried-up  colors  of  a 
quatrocento-painter  with  the  chalky  crayons  of  the  Pleineair 
Pallet? 

Could  anything  defeat  this  aesthetic  demand  in  the  field  of 
music,  in  which  the  individuality  of  the  composer  cannot  be  ap- 
pealed from  even  in  the  last  instance,  while  in  the  plastic  arts  our 
so  much  exalted  education  and  capacity  of  objective  viewing  may 
be  appealed  to  ? 

We  are  therefore  yet  far  removed  from  a  truly  congenial  repro- 
duction of  Bach's  compositions,  notwithstanding  that  historical 
musical  performances  have  become  the  order  of  the  day  every- 
where. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  in  this  study  the  selection  of 
the  instrument  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 


io6 

Historical  truthfulness  and  historical  justice  are  therefore  the 
battle-cry  which  we  wish  to  promulgate  in  the  study  of  Bach. 
We  behold,  all  over,  the  principles  of  historical  study  duly 
acknowledged,  yet  in  all  these  fields  of  labor  of  the  mind,  historical 
truth  stands  firmly  as  the  fundamental  principle  of  true  art. 

We  read  the  poets  of  former  ages  in  their  original  language, 
in  the  study  of  law  we  go  back  to  the  very  fountain,  we  imitate  on 
the  stage,  and  while  relating  the  things  of  the  past  conscientiously, 
their  historical  conception  and  shape,  even  in  such  things  which 
in  the  other  world  is  called  good  and  bad  in  the  consideration  of 
the  moral  itself,  we  have  attempted  to  use  historical  criticism.  I 
only  remind  you  of  the  celebrated  rescue  of  Lucrezia  Borgia,  by 
Gregorovicus,  therefore,  what  should  deter  us  so  to  hear  the  music 
of  our  ancestors,  and  so  to  feel  it  as  it  appeared  intelligible  and 
full  of  enjoyment  to  our  great  predecessors? 

The  almost  incomprehensible  successes  of  the  English  Pre- 
raphaelites,  which  I  have  hereinbefore  briefly  mentioned,  can 
amply  teach  us  what  surpassing  and  infinite  vitality  to-day  still 
exists  in  even  quite  removed  and  seemingly  defeated  periods  of 
art,  and  how  they  in  an  astonishing  degree  can  gain  the  as- 
cendency over  modern  minds.  The  school  of  painting  of  the 
Preraphaelites  embodies  in  their  efforts,  as  is  well-known,  the  most 
unheard  of  and  rudest  reaction  against  every  progress  in  which 
painting  may  glory  since  the  days  of  Raphael  and  Perugino. 

"Smear"  the  Preraphaelites  term  everything  which  painting 
since  the  death  of  Van  Dyck  had  brought  forth.  Heaven  and 
Earth,  Gods  and  Heroes,  everything  that  creeps  and  flies,  the 
Preraphaelites  behold  and  clothe  with  the  eyes  and  conception  of 
the  period  of  Renaissance. 

I  have  watched  their  conduct  for  obvious  reasons  with  the 
greatest  interest.  The  audacity  of  their  artistic  religion  possesses 
in  fact  something  imposing  from  which  one  cannot  easily  escape. 

They  teach  that  "  Raphael  is  the  highest  summit  of  art."  They 
call  an  attempt  to  surpass  him  "to  perish  without  help  in  man- 


io7 

nerism."  In  order  to  gain  the  height  of  artistic  labor,  we  must 
enquire  into  its  inception;  therefore  we  must  go  back  to  Perugino. 
Before  all  we  must  create  out  of  ourselves  an  ideal,  namely  our 
own  ideal.  Thus  the  Preraphaelites  seek  only  the  beauty  which 
permeates  them,  the  absolute  beauty.  This  battle  raged  for  thirty 
years,  but  to-day  the  Preraphaelites  reign  with  their  pure,  deep 
Idealism  all  over  England,  over  its  entire  art  and  the  entire 
nation,  and  over  all  that  territory  wherever  only  Albion's  flag  is 
supreme ! 

The  Renaissance  of  Bach  cannot  naturally  be  exerted  to  such 
an  extent,  and  the  time  is  probably  distant  for  the  formation  of  a 
brotherhood  of  Pre-Sebastianists.  We  would  severely  depreciate 
such  a  condition  of  zealotism  in  this  otherwise  sad  era  of  music. 
Surely  the  fantastic  richness  of  inmost  power  of  creation  and  gift 
of  formation  which  emanates  without  limit  from  Bach,  must  be 
considered  as  the  triumph  of  unfettered  activity  of  art.  We  must 
not,  however,  pervert  to  excess  the  strictly  historical  method  of 
studying  Bach  by  foolishly  claiming  Bach's  clavier  composi- 
tions must  without  exception  be  heard  on  the  clavichord.  Noth- 
ing could  be  more  one-sided  and  erroneous  than  such  a  limitation, 
which  in  addition  would  include  a  total  ignorance  of  the  true 
substance  of  Bach's  art. 

According  to  the  grand  researches  of  Phillip  Spitta,  it  is  a 
well  established  fact  that  all  clavier  creations  of  Bach  were  com- 
posed for  an  ideal  instrument,  which  was  destined  for  our  times, 
but  the  sound  of  which,  like  a  vision,  must  have  agitated  even 
then  with  irresistible  vocation,  the  expectant  heart  of  the  great 
old  master.  These  researches  explain  from  these  facts,  that  almost 
unapproachable  bruskness  of  the  character  of  so  many  composi- 
tions of  Bach,  and  especially  the  almost  horrifying  regardlessness 
of  sound,  in  which  compositions  Bach  manifestly,  with  complete 
disregard  of  their  outward  appearance,  only  aimed  at  the  creation 
of  their  spiritual  worth. 

In  the  beautiful  words  of  Spitta,  he  is  "the  excessive  idealism 


io8 

of  a  German  mind,  who  always  looks  up  towards  the  clouds  with- 
out caring  whether  his  feet  entangle  themselves  in  earthly  thorns." 

This  pure,  spiritual  tenor  of  the  Polyphony  of  Bach  appears 
on  no  other  instrument  so  unlimited  and  so  clear  in  its  naked 
beauty,  as  on  the  clavichord. 

The  peculiar  effect  of  sound  of  the  latter,  which  conduces  to 
only  very  modest  perceptions  of  the  senses,  permits,  however,  in  its 
stead  a  deeper  insight  in  the  worldless  strife  and  labor  of  tones,  if 
I  am  permitted  to  say  it,  in  the  status  nascendi  of  polyphonic  art 
itself,  in  which  the  voices  ascending  and  descending  finally  form  a 
tone  palace. 

There  is  only  one  completely  satisfactory  course  to  attain 
analytically  a  full  understanding  of  Bach's  art,  namely  to  study 
Bach  on  the  clavichord.  Here  we  can  see  the  whole  chemism  of 
complicated  connection  of  sound  effected  in  full  purity;  the  mole- 
cular powers  of  harmony,  the  affinity  and  allied  breaking  through 
of  sounds.  It  is  easy  to  fathom  this  great  spiritual  development 
of  polyphony  with  the  extraordinary  richness  and  abundance  of 
tone  of  the  modern  piano.  The  sensual  nervous  enchantment  of 
sound  harasses  too  much  the  grasping  of  the  mind,  we  listen  too 
much  to  the  effect  of  the  volume  of  sound  on  the  ear,  but  the 
motive  powers  that  reign  supreme  and  cause  all  this,  remain 
invisible. 

We  are  too  easily  induced  to  search  for  the  effect  on  the  sur- 
face in  purely  accidental  harmony,  in  coloristic  effects,  which  are 
however  only  side  issues,  and  therefore  the  warning  cry  must  again 
be  raised  to  confine  yourself  closely  to  the  clavichord  for  the 
study  of  Bach.  Only  after  one  has  gained  on  the  clavichord  a 
full  understanding  of  his  polyphonic  architecture,  can  he  attempt 
to  paint  the  clavier  compositions  of  Bach  with  the  shining  colorit 
of  modern  piano  music.  And  then  only  will  be  disclosed  the 
whole  wonderful  beauty  which  filled  the  master's  imagination. 
We  hear  more  distinctly  the  sound  of  the  bells  from  the  deep, 
and  clearly  the  forms  from  below  send  their  greetings. 


ARTICLE  OF  DR.  HIRSCHFELD, 


VIENNA. 


A  TREATISE 

ON  THE 

M.   STEINERT   COLLECTION 

BY 

DR.  ROBERT  HIRSCHFELD, 

PROFESSOR  OF  MUSICAL  AESTHETICS  AT  THE  VIENNA  CONSERVATORY. 

Taken  from  the  Vienna  "  Presse,"  July  30,  1892. 


STEINERT'S  PIANO  COLLECTION. 

Whoever  wishes  to  study  the  development  of  the  piano  from  its  earliest 
beginning  to  the  most  noble  productions  of  modern  technique,  not,  however, 
in  dry  words  and  dead  pictures,  but  in  resounding  and  well  preserved 
exhibits,  will  find  in  Steinert's  collection,  which  stands  next  to  the  English 
department,  full  satisfaction  and  a  rich  artistic  enjoyment. 

The  owner  has  brought  more  than  25  keyed  instruments,  the  fourth  part 
of  his  precious,  splendidly  arranged  collection  at  great  cost  from  his  residence 
in  New  Haven,  near  New  York,  to  Vienna. 

The  result,  however,  amply  repays  his  efforts,  for  Steinert's  collection  is 
a  most  prominent  ornament  of  the  exhibition.  His  department  has  become 
for  a  long  time  the  resort  of  earnest  investigators  and  a  favorite  studying 
place  for  lovers  of  music,  whom  Mr.  Steinert  regales  with  great  liberality  by 
a  pleasing  exhibition  of  these  instruments  and  beneficial  lessons  of  their 
interesting  construction. 

The  collection  is  closely  related  to  its  owner.  One  cannot  picture 
Steinert,  the  lover  and  excellent  judge  of  old  instruments  without  his  old 
pianos,  with  which  he  lives  continuously  in  spirit  and  in  practice;  but  the 
collection  itself  finds  in  Steinert  not  alone  its  well-versed  guardian  and 
custodian  but  also  its  necessary  complement,  because  he  knows  unlike  any 
other  to  bring  forth  the  tone  from  the  old  clavichords  and  harpsichords  and 
he  resuscitates  with  wonderful  skill,  deeply  entering  the  art  of  the  former 
generation,  a  long  lost  technique  of  playing. 


H4 

Whoever  hears  how  Steinert,  with  delicacy  and  artistic  knowledge, 
colors  the  clavier  tone  of  the  oldest  instruments  and  wonderfully  modulates 
the  same,  falls  in  love  immediately  with  the  old  plain  looking  boxes  that 
represent  the  clavichord,  and  loses  himself  in  an  enticing  romance  of  sound 
as  far  as  the  sense  for  sound,  which  is  far  distant  from  the  noise  of  tone  of 
our  times,  can  be  awakened  in  him. 

The  tradition  of  the  good  old  city  musician  (stadt  musikant)  still  lives 
in  Steinert.  As  a  son  of  a  peasant,  he  enjoyed  in  his  earliest  youth  in  a  small 
city  in  Bavaria  the  popular  instruction  of  a  well  meaning  city  musician  in  the 
playing  of  all  possible  instruments;  for  that  reason  none  of  them  seem  strange 
to  him  to-day  and  he  is  most  at  home  on  those  which  are  least  known  to-day. 
He  who  is  now  the  representative  of  the  famous  piano  factory  of  Steinway 
studied  and  practiced  before  he  emigrated  as  a  boy  on  a  very  old  clavichord, 
the  patriarch  of  our  pianos. 

Numbers  i  to  5  of  the  Steinert  collection  exhibit  old  clavichords,  square 
cornered  bodies  without  legs.  The  levers  of  the  keys  rest  in  their  middle 
part  on  a  pin  and  strike  at  the  rear  end  with  a  metal  tongue  against  the  metal 
strings,  which  are  strung  above  the  same.  Their  mechanism  is  the  most 
simple  imaginable.  The  metal  tongue  is  called  a  tangent,  because  it  touches 
the  string,  and  for  that  reason  the  clavichord  is  also  called  the  tangent  piano. 
Four  clavichords  of  the  collection  are  gebunden  or  fretted,  because  three  or 
four  consecutive  tones  are  produced  on  one  string,  so  that  the  instrument 
contains  many  more  keys  than  strings.  No.  5  is  free  from  this  condition. 
In  it  a  particular  string  ("bundfrei "  or  unfretted)  belongs  to  each  key.  It  is 
said  that  the  organist,  Daniel  Faber,  invented  the  latter  instrument  in  1725. 
Immediately,  then,  the  necessity  arose  to  deaden  the  shorter  part  of  the 
strings  of  the  clavichord.  This  was  done  at  that  time,  according  to 
Sebastian  Vivdung,  by  inserting  small  pieces  of  woolen  cloth  between  the 
strings.  "This  frees  the  strings  from  rattling  and  from  the  coarse,  un- 
pleasant reverberations,  so  that  they  do  not  continue  to  resound."  The 
tone  of  the  clavichord  is  thin,  but  not  without  charm.  Therefore  Dr.  O. 
Fleischer  says  with  full  right  in  his  instructive  catalogue  of  the  Berlin 
royal  collection  of  instruments:  "If  any  one  lends  his  ear  after  isolating 
the  same  from  the  massive  sound  of  modern  musical  instruments  to 
this  naive  sound,  he  will  very  soon  find  it  very  charming.  It  is  most 
decidedly  adapted  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  listner  to  the  utmost. 
While  the  full  tones  of  our  hammer  pianos  especially  attract  the  senses,  one 
can  justly  describe  the  tone  of  the  clavichord  as  purely  spiritual.  This 
characteristic  is  not  only  lovely,  but  also  strictly  true.  This  spiritual  con- 


JI5 

dition  of  the  clavichord  manifests  itself  in  its  peculiar  adaptation  to  poly- 
phonic playing.  Chords  sound  like  glass,  but  the  intermixture  of 
independent  harmony  is  of  unspeakable  charm.  It  is  an  instrument  that 
urges  improvisation,  not,  however,  to  empty  humming  of  sounds,  but  to  the 
deep  combinations  of  living,  trembling  voices.  Mr.  Steinert  has  again 
acquired  the  old  technic  of  playing  the  clavichord,  he  shows  in  his  tuneful 
improvisations  that  the  player  of  the  clavichord  like  the  violionist  has  full 
power  over  the  lightly  stretched  strings,  that  in  each  string  there  lives  and 
trembles  a  susceptible  soul,  which  can  proclaim  mourning  and  joy,  or  in  the 
words  of  Hans  Hayden  of  Nuremberg,  "And  although  the  text  cannot  be 
expressed  by  words  the  player  can  make  known  his  feelings,  whether  sad  or 
joyful  thoughts  animate  him,  by  the  courageous  or  timid  manner  with  which 
he  attacks  the  clavier."  Mr.  Steinert  plays  on  the  clavichord,  ex 
imfroviso,  with  the  deepest  expression  to  the  elevation  of  the  senses  of  the 
listener,  recitatives,  as  can  be  found  in  the  chromatic  phantasy  of  Bach. 
The  tone  of  the  instrument  is  in  the  hands  of  Master  Steinert  of  astonish- 
ingly long  duration.  We  learn  to  understand  that  the  clavichord,  which 
permits  singing  and  shading,  was  indeed  the  favorite  instrument  of  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach. 

Moreover,  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach  admonishes  that  if  any  one  plays  con- 
tinuously on  the  quillgrand  he  gets  accustomed  to  play  in  one  color,  and 
the  different  touch,  which  only  a  good  clavichord  player  can  produce  on  a 
grand,  remains  hidden.  Mozart  yet  used  a  clavichord,  and  the  instrument 
in  the  exhibition  in  the  Mozart  department,  erroneously  termed  a  traveling 
spinet,  is  in  fact  a  clavichord.  Whoever,  under  the  skillful  guidance  of 
Mr.  Steinert,  examines  his  collection  will  tear  himself  away  with  difficulty 
from  his  clavichords.  Mr.  Steinert  loves  them  as  a  father  loves  his  good 
children.  He  has  adopted  these  foster  children  when  they  were  in  a 
neglected  condition ;  he  has  newly  dressed  them  and  brought  them  up  with 
great  care.  Many  a  clavichord  in  the  exhibition  whose  strings  are  wanting 
and  whose  keys  are  broken  and  for  which,  neither  through  flattery  nor  the 
rough  pressure  a  tone  can  be  produced,  seems  to  yearn  after  a  foster  father 
like  Papa  Steinert. 

We  next  advance  in  this  learnedly  arranged  collection  to  the  spinet  (No. 
6.)  The  instrument  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  and 
was  built  by  John  Hitchcock  in  London.  The  spinet  derives  its  name 
either  from  the  supposed  inventor,  Spinetti,  or  from  spina  (a  thorn.)  On  the 
end  of  the  key  lever  you  find  in  it  loosely  attached  a  jack  (a  small  wooden 
stick,)  from  whose  side  protrudes  a  pointed  elastic  thorn,  the  spina.  At  the 


n6 

striking  of  the  key  the  jack  jumps  up  in  a  straight  line  and  the  thorn,  usually 
cut  from  the  quill  of  a  feather  of  a  raven,  plucks  the  string.  The  tone  of  the 
spinet  is  chirping,  more  powerful  and  more  intensive  than  that  of  the 
clavichord,  but  not  as  pliable.  In  the  spinet  the  strings  lie  like  as  in'  the 
clavichord,  obliquely  to  the  direction  of  the  keys,  but  in  a  more  advanced 
phase  of  progress.  In  the  clavicymbel,  also  called  cembalo,  quillgrand  and 
in  English  harpsichord,  the  strings  are  stretched  in  the  same  direction  of  the 
keys.  The  clavichord  has,  therefore,  the  keyboard  on  the  larger  end  of  the 
body,  while  the  harpsichord,  in  the  form  of  modern  grands,  has  its  keyboard 
on  the  shorter  end.  The  harpsichord  is  also  provided  with  a  resting  frame 
and  legs,  which  were  for  a  long  time  wanting  in  the  clavichord  and  spinet 
and  which  were  placed,  when  used,  on  a  table.  Soon  afterwards,  in  order 
to  produce  different  tone  coloring  in  all  kinds  of  changes,  various  stops  were 
added  to  the  harpsichord  and  clavicymbel,  whose  description  would  lengthen 
this  article  too  much  and  which  can  be  read  in  the  catalogue  of  Dr.  Fleischer, 
herein  before  mentioned.  The  collection  of  Steinert  includes  a  harpsichord, 
newly  purchased  and  not  yet  repaired,  by  Couchet  of  Antwerp  in  1679  and 
also  in  No.  7  a  harpsichord  by  Jacobus  and  Abraham  Kirkmann,  1776, 
London,  with  three  stops.  Kirkmann,  whose  real  name  was  Kirchman,  was  a 
German,  who  emigrated  to  London,  and  who  there  founded  a  harpsichord 
factory.  The  harpsichord  No.  8,  also  built  by  Jakob  Kirkmann  in  1755,  has 
leather  tangents  instead  of  quills  and  consequently  has  a  softer  tone.  Here 
it  may  be  remarked  that  England  produced  harpsichords,  but  no  clavichords, 
which  were  indigenous  to  Germany  and  Italy. 

One  generally  calls  the  tone  of  the  harpsichord,  because  the  thorn  does 
not  strike  but  merely  plucks  the  string,  soulless,  but  whenever  Master 
Steinert  through  attentive  listeners  is  inspired  to  the  true  mood,  he  knows 
how  to  play  the  harpsichord  with  such  expression  that  we  obtain  a  clear 
insight  of  the  skill  of  the  old  masters. 

No.  9  of  this  instructive  collection  brings  us  to  a  great  progress,  to 
the  Hammerclavier  (pianoforte).  The  Italian  Christofori  is  called  the 
inventor  of  the  modern  hammerclavier.  The  new  system  is  discovered, 
however,  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  almost  simultaneously  in 
different  places.  Models  of  the  hammer  mechanism  of  Christofori  can  be  seen 
in  the  English  division  of  the  exhibition.  They  are  already  astonishingly 
perfect  and  complicated.  The  celebrated  Gottfried  Silbermann  takes  a  great 
share  in  the  improvement  and  introduction  of  the  hammer  mechanism;  in 
fact,  every  German  piano  maker,  even  talented  school  teachers  and  organists, 
have  added  something  to  its  improvement  from  their  own  ingenuity,  and,  the 


old  forms  for  this  reason,  as  shown  by  Steinert's  collection,  are  so  diversified 
and  individual  that  their  continuous  development  cannot  be  easily  followed 
in  one  direction"  only.  The  hammer  piano  No.  9,  made  by  John  Frederick 
Julius  Schneider  in  Nuremberg,  has  bare  wooden  hammers,  not  covered  with 
leather,  without  means  of  release ;  that  is,  the  hammers,  after  striking,  re- 
turn to  their  respective  places  by  means  of  their  elasticity,  and  not  by  means 
of  any  mechanical  contrivance.  This  instrument  has  five  octaves  and  still 
adheres  to  the  clavichord  form.  A  strip  of  leather  can  be  carried  as  a  sort 
of  sordine  of  the  tone  by  a  register  under  the  strings.  Especially 
noteworthy  are  the  independent  dampers  which  are  connected  with  every 
single  hammer.  The  hammer  piano  •  No.  10  removes  itself  in  its  form 
from  the  clavichord  character,  only  the  tuning  place  on  the  right  hand  side 
recalls  the  clavichord,  the  mounting  of  the  strings  and^the  method  of  the 
striking  of  the  hammers  carry  back  the  form  of  the  spinet.  Thus  as  the 
features  of  our  predecessors  are  depicted  in  the  faces  of  their  grandchildren, 
old  forms  recur  always  in  different  instances  in  new  instruments.  The 
hammer  piano  No.  n  points  to  John  Chris.  Jeckel  (Worms,  1783).  The 
frame  resembles  the  clavichord,  but  in  distinction  to  No.  9,  in  which  we  find 
a  separate  damper  for  each  hammer,  the  damping  here  is  done  by  a  strip  of 
cloth  that  is  extended  over  all  the  strings.  In  the  mechanism  of  the  hammers 
the  maker  manifests  himself  as  the  predecessor  of  the  so-called  Vienna 
mechanism  of  Stein,  who  makes  the  hammer  strike  the  string  in  front  in  the 
direction  of  the  keys.  The  English  mechanism  lifts  the  hammer  in  front,  so 
that  it  hits  the  string  in  the  rear  in  an  opposite  direction  from  the  keys. 
The  hammer  piano,  No.  12,  by  John  Broadwood,  about  1771,  exhibits  the 
latter  system.  The  hammer  is  raised  in  front  and  strikes  in  the  rear. 
Christofori  has  used  this  system  for  the  grand  piano.  Silbermann  adopted 
the  same.  Zumpe,  a  German,  however  used  it  for  table-form  pianos  and  in- 
troduced the  system  in  England,  where  it  became  prominent  for  the  English 
school.  This  piano  is  tuned  on  the  right  hand  side,  like  the  clavichord. 
Also  No.  13,  with  Zumpe's  mechanism,  without  any  release  to  the  hammer 
(see  above)  and  three  registers,  is  tuned  like  the  clavichord  and  has  a 
clavichord  frame.  The  instrument  No.  12  previously  mentioned,  because  of 
English  origin,  shows  the  spinet  frame,  especially  since  only  spinets  and 
harpsichords  were  made  in  England.  Very  remarkable  is  No.  14,  an  up- 
right hammer  piano,  dating  from  the  midst  of  the  last  century,  in  respect  to 
the  mounting  of  the  strings.  The  strings,  to  the  astonishment  of  mechanics, 
are  not  strung  vertically,  as  one  might  expect  from  its  upright  form,  but 
horizontally.  The  hammer  has  means  of  release,  that  is,  it  has  scarcely 


n8 

touched  the  string  when  by  means  of  a  certain  mechanism  it  is  liberated,  so 
that  it  can  return  to  its  resting  place. 

No.  15  shows  John  Schantz,  as  exponent  of  the  Vienna  hammer 
mechanism.  No.  16  again  leads  us  to  England.  The  hammer  rests  inde- 
pendent of  the  keys  over  them  on  a  separate  strip  of  wood.  The  piano  by 
Culliford,  Rolfe  and  Barrow  has  mechanism  to  drop  the  hammer  after 
striking.  Short  mention  is  made  of  No.  17  from  the  year  1825,  and  No.  18, 
an  English  piano.  No.  19,  made  by  Babcock,  is  distinguished  for  its  elastic, 
beautiful  tone;  also  No.  20,  coming  from  New  York.  No.  21,  from 
Baltimore,  has  a  fagotte,  forte  and  celeste  register,  also  a  pedal  for  Turkish 
music.  Conspicuous  by  reason  of  its  soft,  noble  silvery  tone  is  the  grand 
piano  No.  22  with  black  lower  keys  of  five  octaves.  The  heads  of  the 
hammers  in  it  are  not  made  out  of  wood,  but  are  formed  by  a  pasteboard 
ring,  which  produces  this  wonderful  softness  of  tone.  The  collection  of 
Mr.  Steinert's  embraces  in  No.  24  a  very  interesting  concert  grand  marked 
"Nannette  Streicher  ne'e  Stein."  This  instrument  gives  rise  to  many 
reminiscences.  We  remember  the  jolly  visit  of  Mozart  at  the  house  of  the 
celebrated  Andreas  Stein  in  Augsburg,  the  enthusiastic  report  of  Mozart  of 
the  Stein  pianos  and  the  mischievous,  comical  criticism  which  tore  to  pieces 
the  piano  playing  of  Nannette  Stein,  then  eight  years  old.  Thus  his 
criticism  of  October  24,  1777,  begins:  "Whoever  hears  and  sees  her  play 
without  laughing  must  be  a  stone  (stein)  like  her  father."  Later  he  adds, 
"she  may  improve,"  and  in  fact  she  became  a  lady  of  high  cultivation,  a 
splendid  artist  and  a  thorough  judge  of  the  art  of  piano  making.  After  the 
death  of  her  father  she  herself  assumed  the  management  of  his  factory,  and 
after  her  marriage  with  Streicher,  the  friend  of  the  youth  of  Schiller,  she 
directed  in  Vienna  the  newly  erected  piano  factory  without  neglecting  the 
duties  of  a  good  housewife  and  mother.  It  is  also  known  that  this 
talented  woman  proved  herself  a  faithful  supporter  and  friend  of  Beet- 
hoven at  a  time  when  he  in  most  reduced  circumstances  did  not  possess 
one  decent  coat,  but  not  even  a  whole  shirt,  and  when  friend  Schindler 
found  occasion  to  depict  Beethoven's  condition  in  its  true  state,  Mrs. 
Streicher  (this  happened  in  the  summer  of  1813)  repaired  Beethoven's 
clothes,  brought  order  into  his  household,  bought  the  most  necessary 
articles,  exhorted  him  to  be  saving,  and,  most  wonderful  to  relate, 
Beethoven  obeyed  in  everything. 

In  No.  25  we  admire  a  rarity,  an  upright  Stein  grand,  which  bears, 
being  built  in  1779,  the  celebrated  name  Stein.  With  a  glance  towards  a 
modern  curiosity,  a  streich  (bow)  piano,  which  imitates  the  tone  of  bowed 
instruments,  we  bid  adieu  to  the  instructive  collection  of  Mr.  Steinert. 


This  collection  delights  us  as  the  achievement  of  an  unselfish  desire  dedicated 
to  art  and  the  knowledge  of  art,  as  the  result  of  a  zeal  of  collection  directed 
by  perfect  knowledge  of  art  during  a  period  of  thirty  years.  It  furnishes  in- 
struction through  the  mouth  of  its  communicative  experienced  owner  and 
through  its  arrangement,  such  as  we  cannot  gain  by  means  of  the  thickest 
books.  It  furnishes  enjoyment  through  Master  Steinert's  beautiful  im- 
provisations, which  he  knows  so  well  to  adapt  to  the  times  and  the  style  of 
the  instruments  of  those  days.  Mr.  Steinert  has  exhibited,  at  great  expense 
to  himself,  his  collection  to  a  number  of  American  universities ;  he  has  also 
brought  his  valuable  instruments,  which  he  himself  has  skillfully  repaired, 
and  which  he  keeps  in  first-class  condition,  to  Vienna.  He  finds  his  reward 
for  his  labors  in  the  fields  of  art,  in  the  great  interest  in  the  recognition  of 
experienced,  learned,  knowledge-seeking  visitors. 


ARTICLE 

FROM  THE 

"AUSTRIAN  NEWS  OF  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA.1 

(MUSIC-ZEITUNG,)  VIENNA. 


THE  HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT 

OF  THE 

PIANO-FORTE. 

FROM  THE  "  AUSTRIAN  NEWS  OF  Music  AND  DRAMA,"  VIENNA,  AUGUST,  1892. 


"If  a  professional  musician  strolls  through  the  magnificent  exhibition 
he  beholds  with  astonishment  the  great  collection  of  musical  instruments 
that  have  been  sent  here  from  the  art  museums  of  all  countries.  It  almost 
appears  like  as  if  a  pilgrimage  of  instruments  had  taken  place  to  the  Mekka, 
to  this  temple  of  art,  under  the  majestic  canopy  of  the  rotunda  pointing 
heavenward. .  Here,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  music,  we  find  united 
in  peaceful  harmony  the  most  hidden  treasures  that  for  centuries  rested  in 
deep  solitude — instruments  of  all  nations  that  all  at  once  as  by  the  touch 
of  the  magician's  wand  have  been  transported  to  a  new  world.  All  these 
wonderful  treasures  were  resting  in  quiet  concealment  in  museums  and  cells 
of  monasteries,  their  faces  were  covered  with  the  black  veil  of  silent  stillness 
of  the  grave,  although  an  ideal  soul  life  slumbered  in  them.  Where  are  the 
sweet  sounds  their  maker  in  days  gone  by  could  breathe  in  them ;  what  has 
become  of  the  mechanism  that  formerly  lent  life  to  the  work  ? 

The  keys  that  once  served  the  player  to  entice  living  tones  from  the  life- 
less instrument  have  grown  yellow,  and  the  strings  once  full  of  melody  are 
eaten  away  by  modern  rust. 

Suddenly  there  appeared  like  a  superterrestrial  fairy  the  art-loving 
Princess  Pauline  von  Metternich,  and  her  magic  call  awoke  them  all  from 
far  and  near  to  one  great  union,  to  a  magnificent  ascension.  And  thus  we 
find  now  here  in  this  exhibition  the  art  historical  collections  of  instruments 
of  the  imperial  House  of  Hapsburg,  of  the  princely  family  Esterhazy,  known 
for  its  devotion  to  art ;  also  those  of  many  archdukes  and  notabilities  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  empire ;  also  the  wonderful  collection  of  the  house  of 
Rothschild,  the  precious  treasures  of  art  of  the  German  empire,  the  private 
collections  of  the  Queen  of  England  and  the  Prince  of  Wales,  etc.,  and  the 


I24 

extensive  collection  from  Great  Britian.  Also  France,  Russia,  Spain,  etc., 
are  represented  here.  Also  the  treasures  of  the  musical  and  singing  societies 
of  Vienna,  especially  valuable  in  a  historical  sense,  amongst  them  the 
original  instruments  of  composers  and  musicians  such  as  Bach,  Handel, 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Schubert,  Mendelssohn,  Chopin,  Schumann, 
and  such  composers  as  Donizetti,  Meyerbeer  and  others.  Worthy  of  con- 
sideration are  the  private  collections  of  the  active  Mr.  De  Witt  from  Leipsic. 
Full  of  wonder  we  stroll  from  one  collection  to  the  other  and  our  eye  feasts  on 
the  instruments  that  are  beautifully  decorated  with  pictures,  whose  outer 
appearance  has  been  enhanced  by  the  painter's  skillful  hand,  until  we 
suddenly  arrive  at  a  point  which  we  may  consider  as  the  terminus  of  our 
journey.  What  does  this  place  contain?  Is  it  ancient  Rome,  or  Greek 
Athens,  which  as  the  celebrated  homes  of  ancient  art  sent  us  treasures? 
Is  it  the  repository  of  a  monarch  or  the  collection  of  a  European  museum  ? 
No,  it  is  none  of  these:  it  is  the  contribution  of  a  new  country;  it  is  young 
America  that  sends  us  treasures,  namely  the  property  of  the  art  patron, 
M.  Steinert  from  New  Haven. 

When  the  call  of  the  Princess  Pauline  von  Metternich  was  first  issued 
to  all  people  of  the  earth  to  send  their  exhibits  to  the  International  exhi- 
bition of  music  and  drama  it  was  also  heard  in  America.  Mr.  Director 
Heinrich  Conried  in  New  York,  whose  labors  in  America  in  behalf  of  the 
German  dramatic  art  are  well  known,  was  nominated  as  a  commissioner  and 
displayed  great  zeal  in  this  matter,  and  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  Mr.  M. 
Steinert's  consent  to  send  a  part  of  his  celebrated  collection  of  old-keyed 
instruments  from  there  to  Vienna. 

The  collection  of  M.  Steinert  contains  in  its  present  completeness  100 
exhibits  of  all  kinds  of  keyed  instruments,  dating  from  the  I3th  century  to 
the  year  1825.  Only  the  paedagogical  part  of  the  collection  is  now  at  Vienna, 
and  with  it  is  its  owner,  Mr.  M.  Steinert,  who  understands  how  to  explain 
these  old  constructions  scientifically,  and  also  knows  how  to  play  on  them  in 
masterly  style,  which  latter  fact  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  field  of 
former  Polyphony  and  the  works  of  Bach  for  the  clavier,  as  they  were 
written,  as  every  one  knows,  exclusively  for  the  clavichord. 

(Here  follows  a  description  of  the  instruments  of  Mr.  Steinert's  col- 
lection with  illustrations  which  is  not  published  for  want  of  space.) 

Now  it  might  be  of  interest  to  our  honored  readers  to  find  a  few  bio- 
graphical sketches  of  Morris  Steinert  in  the  following: 

Morris  Steinert,  born  March  gih,  1831,  at  Scheinfeld,  near  Wiirzburg, 
in  Bavaria,  left  his  home  as  a  young  man  of  23  years,  and  emigrated  to 


125 

America,  where  he  officiated  for  some  time  as  a  violoncellist  in  the  New 
York  opera  and  also  in  public  concerts.  Afterwards  he  went  to  the  Southern 
States  as  organist  and  piano  teacher  and  married  there;  and  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  between  the  North  and  South,  he  gave  up  his  position  in 
order  to  officiate  again  as  a  musician  in  New  York. 

This  work  as  a  musician,  however,  was  detrimental  to  his  bodily  health 
and  following  the  advice  of  his  physician,  he  assumed  a  new  occupation, 
which  consisted  in  this;  that  Mr.  Steinert  accepted  the  agency  of  the  cele- 
brated piano  factory  of  Steinway  &  Sons  of  New  York  and  other  great  firms 
for  the  New  England  and  Western  States.  His  energetic  zeal  was  quickly 
crowned  with  great  success,  so  that  he  was  soon  enabled  to  open  branch 
stores  in  seven  different  cities  in  America,  for  each  one  of  his  seven  grown 
up  sons,  under  the  firm  name  of  the  M.  Steinert  &  Sons  Company. 

This  piano  business  is  at  present  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  celebrated 
in  the  world. 

During  his  leisure  hours  the  founder  of  this  world  reputed  firm  occupies 
himself  with  his  beloved  art;  and  as  his  state  of  health  does  not  permit 
him  the  continuous  practice  of  music,  he  has  given  his  attention  more 
particularly  to  the  collection  of  old  musical  instruments  and  it  can  be  well 
said  of  him,  that  at  present,  he  possesses  the  largest  collection  of  old-keyed 
instruments.  Mr.  Steinert  sacrificed  much  time  and  labor  and  thus,  through 
many  journeys  through  America  and  Europe,  he  gained  possession  of  all 
these  precious  treasures.  But  he  was  not  satisfied  like  the  average  collectors 
and  museums  to  obtain  these  old  broken  instruments  merely  for  inspection. 
No!  His  aim  was  higher,  more  ideal.  He  inspired  new  life  into  these 
old  instruments,  by  means  of  thorough  repairs,  and  he  then  carefully  pro- 
ceeded to  study  gradually  their  character  of  tone,  in  order  to  be  able  to  play 
them  in  the  spirit  of  former  times,  in  which  effort  he  was  materially  assisted 
by  his  wonderful  talent  of  improvisation,  so  that  at  present  he  stands  un- 
surpassed in  this  highly  interesting  field.  As  has  been  stated  before,  Mr. 
Steinert  is  now  a  guest  within  our  walls,  as  a  disinterested  interpreter  of 
an  epoch  of  art,  which  was  almost  believed  to  be  lost.  Musicians  and  friends 
of  art  can  surely  expect  an  artistic  treat  while  inspecting  the  incomparable 

collection  of  Mr.  M.  Steinert. 

G.  KUEHLE. 
Vienna,  July,  1892. 


ARTICLE,  "WIENER  ABENDBLATT." 


,HE    following  article,  translated   from   the  German,   was 
published  in  the   Wiener  Abendblatt,  October  21,  1892, 
some  weeks  after  Mr.  Steinert  had  left  Vienna.    It  depicts 
the  fruits  of  Mr.  Steinert's  labors  while  at  the  art  exposition. 

FROM  THE  ROTUNDA. 

The  deserted  Prater  grounds,  now  rest  in  the  humid  dew  of  the  fall 
morning.  Everything  appears  in  fast  changing  contours,  the  fields  and 
leaves  in  the  variegated  and  elegiac  colors  of  withering  and  decay.  The 
gigantic  building  of  the  Rotunda  becomes  visible  through  the  surrounding 
fog  in  shadowy  outlines.  From  the  interior  of  the  Rotunda  there  sounds 
forth  a  noise  hollow  and  weird.  From  time  to  time  it  increases  to  loud 
hammering  and  din,  until  suddenly  there  can  be  heard  a  terrible  crash  like 
that  of  falling  walls.  After  that  comes  again  the  noise  of  drilling,  that 
terrifying  music  of  the  work  of  destruction  which  is  now  being  carried  on  in 
the  building  of  the  exhibition.  But  to  view  this  destruction  is  still  more 
touching.  Over  night  in  a  few  hours  there  have  been  completely  de- 
stroyed all  these  wonderful  creations  of  reconstruction  and  system  which 
learned  study  and  science  in  conjunction  with  the  architect  of  the  exhibition 
formed  from  thousands  of  single  subjects  in  true  historic  sense  and  thought, 
also  all  these  corners,  recesses  and  fronts  which  represented  the  knowledge 
of  art  of  former  centuries ;  in  fact,  which  reproduced  the  history  of  art  of 
entire  celebrated  epochs.  It  is  indeed  a  field  of  battle  covered  with  ruins, 
but  at  the  same  time  a  field  of  victory.  No  matter  how  high  may  be  con- 
jectured the  idealistic  ends  and  purposes  of  this  exhibition,  of  this  united 
contest  and  strife,  they  were  obtained  even  more  gloriously;  the  vast  num- 
bers of  scientific  and  artistic  treasures,  which  have  been  collected  here  have 
been  made  subservient  in  a  still  higher  degree  to  a  mass  of  fruitful  effects 
and  will  be  a  source  of  generating  activity  in  these  fields  hereafter.  This 
applies  as  well  to  the  whole  exhibition  as  to  its  individual  branches.  Es- 
pecially in  the  part  relating  to  instrumental  music  and  the  exhibition  of 
musical  instruments  there  was  offered  such  a  richness  of  objects  and  forms, 
as  probably  have  never  been  beheld  before  in  such  abundance,  it  may  be 
safely  stated  that  such  a  large  number  will  not  be  again  brought  together  in 
the  near  future 


ijo 

For  example,  what  power  of  attraction  did  the  now  well  known  special 
exhibition  of  old-keyed  instruments  for  which  the  celebrated  collector  and 
learned  musician,  Morris  Steinert,  from  New  Haven,  had  united  about  40 
of  his  most  costly  and  rare  objects  exert  on  the  untold  thousands  of  visitors? 
In  contrast  to  the  disposition  and  arrangement  of  instruments  in  mostly  all 
other  sections  in  which  other  causes  rather  than  system,  historic  under- 
standing of  genetic  development  determined  their  disposition,  the  collection 
of  Mr.  Steinert  exhibited  in  the  limited  field  of  keyed  instruments  in  the 
most  instructive  manner  their  development  from  the  clavichord  to  the  modern 
gigantic  grand  piano.  It  adds  to  Mr.  Steinert's  merit  that  he  himself  ar- 
ranged his  collection  and  his  worth  may  be  still  higher  appreciated  when  it 
is  considered  that  his  collection  is  that  of  a  private  individual,  and  that  he, 
without  receiving  any  subsidy,  at  a  great  sacrifice  responded  to  the  call 
which  was  sent  to  him  from  Vienna.  His  collection  possesses  a  most 
prominent  advantage,  namely,  that  all  his  instruments  have  been  recon- 
structed and  have  been  put  in  a  playable  condition  by  scientific  hands  in  the 
spirit  and  intent  of  their  old  builders.  Furthermore  in  his  whole  collection 
every  single  instrument  has  been  discovered  and  so  to  speak  has  been  ex- 
humed by  its  possessor.  Mr.  Steinert  seems  to  possess  in  this  field  a 
peculiar  scent,  even  in  Vienna,  where  he  hardly  went  beyond  the  exbibition 
grounds,  he  succeeded  in  discovering  in  some  old  attics  several  valuable  old 
harpsichords,  which  naturally  now  are  his  property.  In  his  special  exhi- 
bition, however,  he  did  not  merely  follow  the  inclinations  of  an  antiquarian. 
His  aims  were  vastly  deeper  or  to  speak  more  correctly  extended  to  a  much 
higher  sphere. 

The  method  of  playing  on  these  old-keyed  instruments  belongs  to  an 
earlier  period  of  time.  It  corresponds  especially  with  the  earliest  polyphony 
of  playing  and  reaches  its  climax,  there  were  Bach's  playing  attained  its 
first  successes.  The  study  of  the  compositions  of  Johann  Seb.  Bach,  also 
of  those  of  the  Italian  school  of  Domenica  Scarlatti,  the  fugues  of  Handel 
and  Ph.  Em.  Bach,  the  manners  even  of  Haydn,  Mozart  and  of  Beethoven 
require  instruments  that  produce  their  tone  by  essentially  different  methods 
than  those  possessed  by  the  pianos  of  later  periods  of  a  Chopin,  Mendels- 
sohn, Thalberg  and  Liszt. 

The  romantic  of  piano  playing  with  all  its  brilliant  variations  and  the 
powerful  effects  of  these  masters  succeeded  apparently  for  a  time  to  push  to 
the  background  the  school  of  Johann  Seb.  Bach  and  his  contemporaries. 
Even  if  Johann  Seb.  Bach  has  been  resuscitated  during  the  last  fifty  years 
and  the  works  of  this  great  master  spirit  have  gradually  resumed  prominence, 
there  has  not  been  placed  a  limit  to  the  thorough  study  of  this  divine  musi- 


cal  world  of  idea,  this  wonderful  art  of  counterpoint.  Mr.  Steinert  has 
made  the  study  of  Bach  his  chief  task.  He  was  not  contented  to  produce 
Bach  by  means  of  the  hammers  of  the  modern  piano,  whose  mechanism  and 
method  of  playing  are  intrinsically  just  as  foreign  to  the  method  of  playing 
the  compositions  of  Bach  as  Johann  Seb.  Bach  himself  was  totally  averse  to 
the  hammer  clavier.  With  all  the  fulness  of  tone  of  the  modern  grand  it 
lacks  those  tender,  soft,  clinging  tone  qualities  of  the  clavichord,  the  instru- 
ment for  which  he  exclusively  created  his  mighty  works.  Therefore  Mr. 
Steinert  undertook  the  task  to  play  Bach's  works  upon  the  clavichord,  and 
it  was  his  mission  in  Vienna  during  the  exhibition  chiefly  to  represent  the 
clavichord  as  a  historical  and  classical  instrument  par  excellence  to  the  dis- 
tinguished musical  circles  and  to  the  numerous  visitors  of  a  musical 
exhibition. 

It  can  be  safely  said  that  Mr.  Steinert  has  remodernized  the  clavichord, 
not,  however,  in  the  sense  that  it  stands  in  its  tone  capacity  of  the  I7th  and 
18  century  on  a  complete  level  with  our  modern  splendid  instruments.  He 
only  struggled  to  regain  for  the  clavichord  its  just  historical  rights  in  this 
particular  that  he  maintained  the  art-historical  principle,  that  the  com- 
positions of  the  past,  in  order  to  be  perfectly  understood  must  be  rendered 
on  the  instrument  belonging  to  their  respective  period.  Through  this  only 
can  the  player  produce  hidden  effects,  which  in  spite  of  all  modern  art  of 
interpretation  are  simply  impossible  on  modern  instruments,  if  any  one  has 
not  previously  conceived  its  historical  sound.  In  this  respect  the  study  of 
old  instruments  for  the  rendition  of  music  of  those  days  on  our  modern 
pianos  assumes  the  same  significance  as  etymology  in  the  stndy  of  our 
mother  tongue.  The  efforts  of  Mr.  Steinert  to  reintroduce  the  study  and 
the  playing  of  the  clavichord  will  doubtless  bear  manifold  fruits.  Prominent 
musicians  and  patrons  of  music  have  become  enthusiastic  adherents  of  this 
modest  and  at  the  same  time  soulful  sounding  instrument  whose  tone  color 
permits  such  a  rich  shading.  The  efforts  of  Mr.  Steinert  belong  to  those 
rare  impulses  of  the  land  of  the  dollar  that  come  to  us  to  serve  only  artistic 
interests  in  opposition  to  all  material  strife. 


A   LOST  ART. 

NEW  HAVEN  EVENING  REGISTER,  November  ijth,  1892. 


A  LOST  ART  IN  EUROPE. 


STEINERT,  of  this  city,  arrived  home  last  evening 
from  Europe.  Mr.  Steinert  has  been  at  the  great 
musical  exhibition  at  Vienna  with  his  collection  of 
rare  old  instruments,  of  which  New  Haveners  have  already 
heard.  The  collection  aroused  much  interest  among  the  musical 
authorities  of  Europe,  and  Mr.  Steinert  has  returned  home 
feeling  more  than  rewarded  for  the  great  amount  of  time  and 
money  that  he  has  spent  upon  his  collection.  The  story  of  his 
work  and  success  at  the  exhibition  was  told  by  Mr.  Steinert  this 
morning  as  follows: 

"  For  five  years  I  have  been  investigating  and  studying  the  art  of  playing 
the  compositions  of  Sebastian  Bach.  At  the  time  when  Bach  wrote,  which 
was  at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  such  an  instrument  as  the  piano- 
forte was  not  known.  The  pianoforte  was  invented  in  1711  in  Italy,  but 
the  invention  was  also  made  in  1716  in  Germany  and  France.  The  various 
inventors  in  France  and  Germany  were  not  aware  of  the  fact  that  a  piano- 
forte had  been  invented  in  Italy.  The  instruments  were  hardly  accepted  as 
a  success  by  such  composers  as  Bach  and  Scarlatti.  The  instruments  used 
by  these  composers  were  the  clavichord  and  harpsichord.  After  the  death 
of  Bach  his  compositions  were  more  or  less  forgotten,  and  it  was  Mendels- 
sohn who,  about  50  years  ago,  brought  Bach  to  notice  again.  The  grandeur 
of  the  compositions  of  Bach  were  soon  acknowledged  by  the  musical  profes- 
sion all  over  the  world,  and  societies  were  formed  with  the  aim  of  collecting 
and  publishing  the  compositions  of  Bach.  They  were,  however,  played 
upon  the  modern  pianoforte  as  the  old  instruments  were  lost  sight  of. 


i36 

I  have  been  engaged  in  collecting  in  Europe  and  also  in  this  country 
the  instruments  used  during  Bach's  period.  I  was  successful,  and 
although  the  instruments  were  found  in  a  deplorable  state,  being  with- 
out strings  and  their  resonant  parts  being  almost  destroyed,  I  went  to 
work  to  repair  them  and  put  them  into  condition  again.  Then  I  went 
to  work  to  study  the  manner  of  playing  them.  In  this  way  the  com- 
positions of  Bach  were  found  to  be  of  a  nature  entirely  different  from 
that  when  produced  on  the  modern  pianoforte.  In  order  to  acquaint  the 
modern  musical  profession  with  the  knowledge  thus  gained,  I  exhibited 
these  instruments  at  different  colleges  and  institutions  of  learning,  and 
musical  schools  throughout  the  country,  showing  them  at  Yale,  Harvard, 
Brown,  Vassar  and  other  institutions,  and  also  in  various  theaters  in  the 
large  cities  of  the  east. 

My  work  was,  however,  known  in  Europe,  and  when  the  great  musical 
exhibition  was  opened  in  Vienna,  I  received  a  personal  letter  from  the 
Princess  Pauline  von  Metternich,  the  patroness  of  the  exhibition,  to  take 
part  in  the  exhibition  and  to  bring  part  of  my  collection,  that  was  at  that  time 
on  loan  at  the  Smithsonian  Institute  at  Washington.  As  my  interest  was 
centered  in  playing  the  Bach  compositions  in  the  very  manner  practised 
by  Bach  himself,  I  went  there  to  show  the  result  of  my  work.  In  this 
I  was  very  successful,  although  I  was  the  only  one  there  who  could  per- 
form that  peculiar  style  upon  these  peculiar  instruments,  and  this  art, 
being  a  lost  art  even  in  Europe,  created  a  sensation  among  the  'scholars 
representing  the  musical  art  of  Europe,  such  as  Dr.  Hans  von  Richter, 
Rubinstein,  Sir  George  Grove  of  London,  the  royal  family  of  Austria,  the 
two  brothers  of  the  emperor  taking  special  interest  in  my  work.  The 
Princess  von  Metternich  spent  an  hour  and  a  half  listening  to  my  playing. 
Prince  Esterhazy  and  other  nobilities  of  the  German  empire  and  other 
countries  also  honored  me. 

On  invitation  I  delivered  a  lecture  before  the  faculty  of  the  Vienna  con- 
servatory of  music,  which  is  considered  the  highest  musical  school  in  the 
world  to-day. 

The  fruit  of  my  labors  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  that  institution,  for 
the  first  time  in  over  a  century,  the  clavichord  and  harpsichord  are  to  be 
played,  and  the  method  of  playing  these  instruments  taught  to  the  students. 
Other  musical  institutions  in  Europe,  such  as  in  Berlin,  Leipsic,  London, 
Paris,  St.  Petersburg!!  and  Moscow,  have  also  begun  to  interest  themselves 
in  this  old  art.  Thus  a  renaissance  of  the  Bach  school  of  playing  the  clavier 
has  been  begun." 


137 

Mr.  Steinert  has  been  honored  by  all  those  who  heard  him  play, 
and  has  received  the  most  nattering  letters  from  the  nobility  and  musical 
authoirties  of  Europe.  Many  musical  journals  and  publications  are  now 
investigating  Mr.  Steinert's  theories  of  the  lost  art  of  the  Bach  school 
and  are  agitating  the  subject,  and  America,  not  to  be  behind,  recently 
sent  to  Vienna  a  commissioner  of  the  World's  fair  to  ask  Mr.  Steinert 
to  send  his  collection  to  Chicago.  The  secretary  of  the  department  of 
liberal  arts  of  the  exhibition  is  now  on  his  way  east,  and  will  arrive  here 
in  a  few  days  to  make  arrangements  for  the  exhibit  of  Mr.  Steinert's 
collection. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  VIOLIN, 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  VIOLIN 


AND 


OTHER  STRINGED  INSTRUMENTS. 


'HE  crwth,  retaining  the  shape  of  the  small  Roman  lyre, 
forms  an  obvious  link  between  the  instruments  of 
antiquity  and  modern  times.  The  time  of  the  use  of  the 
bow  in  connection  with  musical  instruments,  is  unknown.  Before 
the  1 3th  century  there  existed  various  modifications  of  stringed 
instruments  which  were  either  plucked  with  the  fingers  or  set  in 
vibration  by  means  of  the  bow  and  were  called  '*  fiddle,  crwth, 
Rotte-Geige  (Gigue  Jig)  and  Rebec."  In  the  beginning  of  the 
1 3th  century  in  connection  with  the  advent  of  the  Troubadours  and 
their  remarkable  influence  on  literature  and  music  a  new  instru- 
ment appeared  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  was  called  "  Viole"  or 
"  Vielle  "  and  also  Guitar  fiddle.  The  Guitar  fiddle  was  used  to 
accompany  the  voice,  it  was  larger  than  its  predecessors,  its  in- 
creased size  being  due  to  the  addition  of  a  waist  whereby  the  bow 
was  enabled  to  reach  the  strings.  In  fact  it  was  a  combination 
of  the  guitar,  hurdy-gurdy  and  viole  in  one;  being  either  plucked 
with  the  fingers,  the  guitar;  played  with  the  bow,  viole;  or  set  in 
motion  by  a  wheel,  the  hurdy-gurdy.  The  viole  was  also  em- 
ployed to  accompany  the  voice  and  through  the  development  of 
choral  singing  violes  of  different  pitches  and  sizes  were  introduced. 
In  the  1 5th  century  instruments  were  made  to  correspond  in 
size  to  the  pitch  of  the  human  voice.  In  order  to  give  these 


142 

instruments  greater  strength  to  resist  the  increased  tension  of  the 
stri  ngs  corner  blocks  were  used.  This  innovation  was  contemporary 
with  the  great  development  of  polyphonic  choral  music  in  Ger- 
many and  the  Netherlands  during  the  i5th  century  and  by  the 
beginning  of  the  i6th  century  the  treble  or  discant  viole,  the 
tenor,  the  bass  viol  and  double  bass  or  violone  were  well  estab- 
lished in  both  these  countries  and  north  Italy.  The  violin  model, 
which  differs  from  the  viole  in  having  shallower  sides,  with  an 
arched  instead  of  a  flat  back  and  square  shoulders  and  in  being 
constructed  in  all  its  parts  of  curved  or  arched  pieces  of  wood  glued 
together  in  a  state  of  tension  on  the  blocks,  first  appeared  in  Italy 
during  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century.  This  instrument  com- 
pletely revolutionized  the  art  of  fiddle  making,  driving  out  of  use 
first  the  Discant  Viol,  then  the  Tenor  and  last  of  all  the  Bass 
Viol.  The  Double  Bass,  which  is  a  Viol  pure  and  simple,  alone 
has  resisted  the  inroads  of  the  Violin  model  and  has  only  been 
changed  in  relation  to  the  sound  holes.  The  substitution  of  the 
violin  for  the  viol,  except  as  hereinbefore  mentioned,  is  due  to  its 
louder  tone  and  conforms  with  the  history  of  musical  instruments, 
which  may  be  stated  in  the  words  "the  survival  of  the  loudest." 
As  the  vibrations  of  the  viols  were  insufficient  to  meet  the 
growing  demand  for  power,  in  order  to  increase  their  power  they 
were  constructed  with  double  strings  tuned  in  fifths  and  octaves 
and  also  with  sympathetic  metal  strings,  and  thus  constituting  the 
family  of  the  Viola  d'Amore  and  Barytone.  The  viol  family 
had  four,  five  and  sometimes  six  strings,  which  were  tuned  by 
fourths,  a  single  major  third  being  interpolated  in  the  five  and  six 
stringed  instruments  in  order  to  preserve  the  same  tonality  in  the 
upper  notes,  being  the  same  system  of  stringing  as  practised  on 
the  lute.  This  system  of  tuning  has  been  proved  to  have  been  in 
vogue  as  early  as  1 542  by  a  treatise  published  that  year  in  Venice, 
and  agreed  with  the  parts  of  contemporary  vocal  music,  especially 
as  the  music  written  for  viols  is  always  within  the  compass  of  the 
human  voice.  There  are  compositions  dating  back  to  1539  which 


'43 

may  be  either  sung  or  played  on  the  viol.  For  this  reason  also 
very  little  is  heard  at  that  time  about  the  double  bass.  This 
instrument  merely  served  as  a  sub-bass  in  octaves  to  the  voice  or 
bass  viol.  This  trio  of  viols,  tuned  as  prescribed  by  the  "  Regola 
Rubertina"  of  1542,  remained  unaltered  in  use  for  a  century  and 
a  half  as  the  basis  of  chamber  music. 

'  The  viols  with  sympathetic  metal  strings  received  the  name 

d'Amore,  not  in  order  to  express  their  special  aptitute  for  expres- 
sing amorous  accents,  but  on  account  of  the  sympathetic  vibrations 
of  the  open  metal  strings  stretched  over  the  belly  in  unison  with 
those  on  the  finger-board.  They  were  in  use  in  Italy  and  Ger- 
many in  the  iyth  and  i8th  centuries.  These  instruments  are 
invariably  made  with  flaming  sword  sound  holes,  and  often  have 
a  rose  under  the  finger-board.  The  sympathetic  strings  of  fine 
brass  or  steel  wire  are  attached  by  loops  at  the  bottom  block 
above  the  tail  pin,  are  then  carried  through  small  holes  drilled  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  bridge  under  the  finger-board,  which  is 
hollowed  for  that  purpose  over  an  ivory  nut  immediately  below 
the  upper  nut  into  the  peg.  The  sympathetic  apparatus  was  of 
two  species,  the  diatonic  consisting  of  6  or  7  strings,  and  the 
chromatic  consisting  of  12  or  more  strings.  In  the  former  the 
strings  were  tuned  to  the  diatonic  scale,  the  lowest  note  being 
generally  D,the  intervals  being  adapted  to  flattening  or  sharpening 
to  the  key  of  the  piece  being  performed.  This,  however,  was  not 
necessary  for  the  chromatic  species,  there  being  twelve  strings, 
one  for  each  semitone  in  the  scale  and  thus  furnishing  a  sympa- 
thetic augmentation  to  every  note  played.  In  the  time  of  Bach 
and  Vivaldi  it  was  tuned  by  fourths  and  a  third  like  the  tenor  viol. 
In  imitation  of  the  Viola  de  Gamba  a  seventh  string  was  added  in 
the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  and  ultimately  the  so-called 
"  Harp  way  "  tuning  of  the  Lute  and  Viola  de  Gamba  was  gener- 
ally adopted.  The  latter  tuning  is  used  in  the  well-known  obligate 
partin  Meyerbeer's  "Huguenots."  The  Viola  d'Amore  is  a  singularly 
beautiful  instrument,  but  the  inherent  difficulties  of  execution  are 


144 

not  easily  overcome,  and  as  every  forte  note  produces  a  perfect 
shower  of  concords  and  harmonics,  all  notes  which  will  not  bear 
a  major  third  must  be  very  lightly  touched.  The  Viola  de  Gamba 
with  sympathetic  strings  was  first  called  the  Viola  Bastarda,  but 
after  undergoing  many  mechanical  improvements  in  its  sympa- 
thetic apparatus,  it  became  the  well-known  Barytone,  the  favorite 
instrument  of  the  musical  epicures  of  the  last  century.  Leopold 
Mozart,  father  of  the  great  Mozart,  considered  it  one  of  the  love- 
liest of  instruments.  Haydn  made  it  his  favorite  instrument  and 
composed  not  less  than  175  pieces  for  it. 

It  may  be  well  to  repeat  here  that  the  Viol  family  consists  of 
the  following  instruments:  the  Treble  or  discant,  Tenor  Viola  de 
Braccio,  Bass  called  the  Viola  de  Gamba,  and  Double  Bass  called 
the  Violone.  The  viola  has  a  flat  back  sloping  off  at  the  top,  and 
is  strengthened  internally  by  cross  bars  and  a  broad  centre  piece 
on  which  the  sound  post  rests.  The  shoulders  curve  upwards, 
joining  the  neck  at  a  tangent  instead  of  at  right  angles  as  in  the 
violin.  The  neck  is  broad  and  thin  and  the  number  of  strings  five, 
six  or  even  seven.  The  peg  is  usually  surmounted  by  a  curved 
head.  The  sound  holes  are  usually  of  the  C  pattern.  Unlike  the 
Violin  it  was  tuned  by  fourths  and  thirds.  Its  tone  is  rather  pene- 
trating than  powerful. 

The  Viola  de  Gamba,  or  Knee  Violin,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Viola  de  Braccio,  to  be  played  on  the  arm,  is  held  between  the 
knees,  is  the  predecessor  of  the  violoncello.  It  is  about  the  same 
size  as  the  latter,  but  has  a  flat  back  like  the  double  bass.  The 
openings  in  the  belly  are  not  S  shaped,  but  are  variously  cut, 
generally  representing  a  thin  crescent.  Originally  the  finger-board 
was  provided  with  frets,  but  this  was  afterwards  discontinued. 
The  Viola  de  Gamba  was  for  a  long  time  the  most  popular  of  all 
bowed  instruments  in  Holland  and  Germany,  and  especially  in 
England.  Shakespeare,  in  his  "Twelfth  Night,"  mentions  as  a 
special  accomplishment  of  Sir  Andrew  Aguecheck  "he  plays  o' 
the  viol  de  gamboys."  In  the  pictures  of  Gerard  Dow  Terburg 


and  other  great  Dutch  masters  of  the  iyth  century,  we  repeatedly 
behold  richly  dressed  ladies  and  gentlemen  playing  the  Gamba. 
In  fact  at  one  time  there  were  only  few  noblemen's  or  gentlemen's 
houses  without  a  "chest"  containing  a  set  of  four  or  more  gambas 
of  different  sizes,  of  rich  make,  carved  and  inlaid  with  ivory  or 
tortoise  shell.  This  popularity  of  the  Gamba  extended  to  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century,  when  the  Violoncello  gradually  began 
to  supersede  it.  The  Gamba  was  played  very  much  like  the 
'Cello.  Sebastian  Bach  was  the  last  great  composer  who  wrote 
for  the  Gamba,  and  he  seems  to  have  had  a  special  predilection 
for  it.  There  are  still  extant  three  of  his  sonatas  for  Clavier  and 
Gamba,  and  a  number  of  obligate  accompaniments  for  airs  in  his 
cantatas  and  the  Passion  music.  He  also  composed  a  Concerto 
grosso  for  two  viols  de  Braccio,  two  viols  de  Gamba,  Violoncello, 
Violone  and  Harpsichord,  and  on  other  occasions  he  used  that 
instrument  for  attaining  special  orchestral  effects.  In  the  beauti- 
ful introduction  to  the  cantata  "  Gottes  Zeit"  we  find  three  differ- 
ent gamba  parts  combined  with  violins  and  flute,  which  must 
have  produced  a  very  peculiar  effect.  In  vain,  however,  we  look 
for  the  gamba  in  Handel's  scores.  C.  F.  Abel,  (who  died  in 
1787)  a  pupil  of  Bach,  and  Lidi,  an  Englishman,  (who  died  in 
1789)  were  the  last  well-known  virtuosi  on  the  Gamba. 

The  Viola  de  Spalla,  or  shoulder  Viol,  was  a  small  bass,  which 
could  be  fastened  with  a  ribbon  round  the  neck,  and  after  playing 
could  be  thrown  back  upon  the  shoulder.  This  instrument  was 
probably  a  'cello  used  by  wandering  musicians  and  was  carried  by 
them  by  means  of  a  leather  strap  over  the  shoulder.  The  English 
Violet  resembled  in  construction  and  tone  the  Viola  d'Amore. 

The  Pochette,  or  Pocket  Violin,  was  carried  by  dancing  masters 
in  their  pockets,  hence  its  French  name;  it  was  also  termed  the 
"Kit"  and  was  usually  16  inches  long.  The  Viola  Pomposa,  a 
small  violoncello  with  an  additional  treble  string,  was  invented 
by  Sebastian  Bach  and  is  probably  identical  with  the  "  Violoncello 
piccolo "  of  his  scores.  The  sixth  of  his  solos  for  the  violoncello 


146 

was  written  for  this  instrument.  This  family  of  viols  has  become 
extinct  at  the  present  time,  and  their  place  has  been  usurped  by 
our  favorite  string  quartett,  the  violin,  the  viola,  the  violoncello 
and  the  contrabass.  The  violin,  whose  difference  of  construction 
from  the  viol  family  has  been  hereinbefore  described,  first 
appeared  in  Italy  in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century.  It  com- 
pletely revolutionized  the  art  of  fiddle  making,  first  causing  the 
disappearance  of  the  Discant  Viol,  then  the  Tenore,  and  last  of  all 
the  Bass  Viol.  The  Double  Bass  alone  survives.  The  substitu- 
tion of  the  violin  for  the  viol  is  due,  as  formerly  stated,  to  its 
louder  tone.  The  violin  model  was  finally  adopted  for  the  tenor 
and  bass  during  the  last  century.  Since  Stradivari,  (1680-1730) 
the  models  for  bowed  instruments  have  scarcely  changed  at  all  to 
the  present  date. 

The  violin  is  now  about  300  years  in  existence.  It  is  the  only 
musical  instrument  that  has  remained  unchanged  throughout  the 
modern  musical  history.  The  lute,  the  universal  companion  of 
bowed  instruments  up  to  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  has  disappeared 
as  completely  as  the  spinet  and  harpsichord.  Wind  instruments 
have  been  completely  revolutionized,  but  the  violin  has  remained 
the  same  for  three  hundred  years,  and  will  probably  remain  so 
while  music  exists.  Numberless  attempts  have  been  made  to 
improve  it,  but  they  all  have  been  abandoned.  Almost  every 
structural  alteration  that  could  be  thought  of  has  been  tried  at 
some  time  and  dismissed.  The  whole  design  of  the  fiddle  has 
been  gradually  settled  in  strict  accordance  with  the  requirements 
of  tone  and  execution.  The  development  of  this  instrument  at 
once  so  simple  and  complex  can  be  easily  traced.  Its  primitive 
forms  can  be  beheld  in  early  monuments.  Old  stringed  instru- 
ments have  gradually  died  hard,  and  very  primitive  ones  have 
maintained  their  place  alongside  of  improved  ones  founded  on 
their  principle.  Thus  the  Marine  Trumpet,  one  of  the  oldest 
bowed  instruments,  and  representing  the  earliest  development  of 
the  monochord,  continued  in  use  for  a  long  time  concurrently 


with  more  advanced  instruments,  and  even  to-day  is  not  quite 
obsolete. 

The  Guitar  shaped  violin,  which  is  a  direct  descendant  of  the 
Fiddle  of  the  Troubadours,  has  been  made  and  used  in  all  ages. 
Likewise,  the  Rebec  for  a  long  time  continued  in  use  side  by  side 
with  the  violin.  The  Viola  de  Gamba  has  never  been  completely 
forced  out  of  existence  by  the  Violoncello.  But  the  most  singular 
survival  of  all  is  the  Welsch  crwth,  which  is  simply  the  small  lyre 
as  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  Celtic  Britain,  adopted  with 
some  slight  modifications  for  use  as  a  bowed  instrument.  The 
adoption  of  four  strings  tuned  by  fifths  for  the  violin  in  its  three 
sizes,  marks  the  emancipation  of  bowed  instruments  from  the 
domination  of  the  lute.  Thereby  such  impediments  to  progress 
as  complicated  and  various  tunings,  frets  and  tablature  music 
were  removed.  This  change  in  very  many  respects  facilitated 
musical  progress.  Naturally  the  diminished  number  of  strings 
increased  the  resonance  of  the  instrument,  as  with  six  strings 
there  is  an  excessive  pressure  on  the  bridge,  which  checks  vibra- 
tion and  increases  the  resistance  to  the  bow.  By  the  change  the 
fingering  was  simplified,  although  in  the  larger  instruments  it  was 
rendered  more  laborious  to  the  player. 

It  cannot  be  maintained,  however,  that  music  lost  nothing  by 
the  abandonment  of  the  viol.  The  violin  offers  fewer  facilities 
for  harmonic  combinations  and  suspensions  in  the  form  of  chords 
and  arpeggios.  Bowed  instruments  tended  more  and  more  to . 
become  merely  melodic,  like  wind  instruments.  By  increasing  the 
length  of  the  scale,  effect  was  sought  to  be  produced,  and  the 
higher  and  less  agreeable  notes,  which  would  have  shocked  the 
ears  of  our  fore-fathers,  were  more  frequently  employed.  In  fact, 
it  is  often  supposed  that  the  earlier  violinists  were  not  sufficiently 
masters  of  the  instrument  to  command  the  higher  positions. 
Nothing  can  be  more  absurd.  Many  compositions  for  the  Viola 
de  Gamba  prove  that  very  complicated  music  was  played  on  that 
instrument  across  the  strings  in  the  higher  positions,  and  the 


148 

transferring  of  this  method  of  execution  to  the  violin  obviously 
rested  with  individual  players  and  composers.  Bach's  violin 
solos  are  written  for  a  performer  of  transcendent  genius,  although 
Bach  with  unfailing  good  taste  without  exception  confines  the 
player  to  the  lower  registers  of  the  instrument. 

At  first  no  sufficient  cause  is  obvious  for  the  concentration  of 
fiddle-making  at  Cremona.  It  may  have  started  from  the  reason 
that  in  the  i6th  century  Cremona  was  a  famous  musical  centre. 
The  district  surrounding  it  was  one  of  the  richest  in  agriculture  in 
all  Lombardy,  and  was  chiefly  under  the  control  of  the  monasteries 
of  the  city  and  neighborhood.  These  wealthy  institutions  vied 
with  each  other  in  the  splendor  of  their  churches  and  daily  ser- 
vices, and  thereby  furnished  constant  employment  to  painters, 
composers  and  instrument  makers.  The  renown  of  Cremona  as  a 
school  of  music  and  painting  was  equal  to  that  of  Bologna,  but 
its  chief  rival  in  fiddle-making  was  Brescia,  where  Caspar  di  Salo, 
the  two  Zanettos,  Giovita  Rodiani  and  Maggini  made  instruments 
from  about  1580  to  1640.  The  characteristics  of  these  makers, 
who  compose  the  so-called  Brescian  School,  can  be  found  in  the 
instruments  of  Andreas  Amati,  the  earliest  known  violin  maker  of 
Cremona.  The  expression  "the  Brescian  School"  is  somewhat 
misleading,  it  would  be  more  correct  to  term  their  instruments  as 
"Early  Italian."  The  reputation  of  the  Cremona  Violins  is  mainly 
due  to  the  sons  of  Andreas  Amati,  namely  Antonio  and  Girolamo 
Amati,  contemporaries  of  Maggini.  Previous  to  this  time,  the 
violin  had  been  treated  as  a  work  of  art  and  as  a  tone-producing 
instrument,  but  artistic  impulses  had  produced  only  superficial 
decorations  in  the  shape  of  painting  or  inlaying  with  wood,  etc. 
The  brothers  Amati,  however,  closely  obeying  the  fundamental 
law  of  art  manufacture,  to  wit,  that  deviation  should  be  founded 
on  construction,  reduced  the  outlines  and  surfaces  of  the  instru- 
ment to  regular  and  harmonious  curves,  and  by  applying  a  certain 
varnish  developed  and  deepened  the  natural  beauty  of  the 
material.  But  while  beautifying  the  exterior,  they  did  not  neglect 


149 

the  mechanical  conditions  of  sonority,  which  is  in  reality  the  soul 
of  the  work.  Their  wood  is  of  prime  quality,  and  the  disposition 
of  the  thicknesses,  blocks  and  linings  leaves  little  room  for  im- 
provement. Their  successors,  Nicholas  Amati,  Stradivari  and 
Joseph  Guarnieri  augmented  the  tone  of  the  instrument.  Nicholas 
Amati,  the  son  of  Hieronymus,  (1596-1684)  was  the  most  cele- 
brated maker  of  the  family.  During  his  long  life  he  perhaps  varied 
least  from  his  own  standard  than  any  other  maker.  After  his 
death  his  pupil,  Antonio  Stradivari,  raised  the  Cremona  Violin  to 
its  utmost  perfection,  (1699-1737.)  He  was  succeeded  by  Albani 
Amati,  Gagliano  Grancino  Guadaguini,  Guarnieri,  Laudolfi,  Sera- 
fin.  The  pupils  and  imitators  of  Stradivari  maintained  the  repu- 
tation of  the  Italian  violins  during  the  first  half  of  the  last  century; 
after  1760,  however,  a  great  decline  can  be  perceived  in  Italian 
violin  making,  although  good  instruments  were  made  by  various 
second  rate  makers  of  the  latter  part  of  the  century.  The  violin 
makers  of  South  Germany  form  a  distinct  school,  Klotz  and 
Stainer  may  be  named  as  the  most  celebrated  of  them;  Munich, 
Vienna,  Salzburg  and  Nuremberg  have  produced  many  fine  violin 
makers.  In  France,  the  following  makers  deserve  special  mention: 
Lupot  and  Vuillaume,  Aldric,  G.  Chanot  the  elder,  Silvestre, 
Marrcotel,  Minnegand,  Henry  and  Rambaux.  In  England,  the 
oldest  school  contains  the  names  of  Urguhart  and  Pamphilon. 
While  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  we  find  in  all  parts  of 
Europe  distinguished  violin  makers  imitating  the  old  Italian 
School,  the  United  States  of  America  cannot  point  to  a  single 
eminent  maker.  The  reason  for  this  can  be  found  in  its  state  of 
musical  culture.  While  the  study  of  the  piano  attracted  universal 
attention,  orchestral  music  was  still  dormant,  orchestral  instruments 
were  sadly  neglected,  and  consequently  little  attention  was  given 
to  the  study  of  the  violin.  Through  the  concert  tours  of  such 
eminent  violinists  as  Sivori,  Ole  Bull  and  Vieuxtemps,  a  great 
interest  in  violin  playing  was  awakened,  and  although  many 
instruments  of  inferior  make  were  thus  imported  to  this  country, 


'S0 

soon  a  demand  arose  for  instruments  of  sterling  merit.  By  the 
advise  of  Ole  Bull,  George  Gemuender,  a  skillful  violin  maker 
employed  by  the  celebrated  Vuillaume  at  Paris,  came  to  this 
country  in  1847.  He  established  himself  in  business  at  New  York, 
and  by  strictly  adhering  to  the  old  Italian  School  he  has  attained 
a  national  reputation.  His  instruments  not  only  in  form  and  var- 
nish and  general  workmanship  closely  resemble  the  Cremona 
violins,  but  in  quality  and  intonation  fairly  equal  them,  and  it  can 
be  safely  said  that  to-day  George  Gemuender  cannot  be  surpassed 
by  any  violin  maker  in  Europe. 


,HE  viol  is  the  typical  representative  of  a  very  large, 
varied  and  widely  distributed  class  of  instruments,  of 
which  in  modern  music  the  violin  is  the  chief  member. 
The  viol  of  the  fifteenth  century  was  characterized  by  a  flat 
back,  in  having  generally  crescent-shaped  sound-holes  in  the 
belly,  and  a  broad,  thin  neck,  forming  a  close  amalgamation 
of  the  neck  with  the  body.  It  had  from  five  to  seven  strings, 
tuned  in  fourths  and  one-third.  The  viol  was  made  in  several 
sizes.  The  smallest,  called  the  treble  or  discant  viol,  passed 
over  later  into  the  modern  violin;  the  next  larger,  the  tenor, 
into  the  viola  da  braccio  and  viola  d'amore  and  the  modern 
viola;  the  next,  bass,  into  the  viola  da  gamba  and  the  violon- 
cello; and  the  largest,  double-bass,  into  the  violone  and  the 
modern  double-bass.  The  viola  da  braccio,  or  arm-viol,  is  so 
called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  bass  viol  or  viola  da  gamba,  the 
leg-viola.  The  viola  da  braccio  had  six  strings,  and  was  tuned 
thus:  G,  D,  A,  F,  C  and  G  (the  second  below  middle  C).  The 
viola  da  gamba  had  properly  six  strings,  tuned  thus:  D,  A,  E,  C, 
G  and  D.  The  viola  d'amore  used  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  having  usually  seven  ordinary  gut  strings 
with  from  seven  to  fourteen  supplementary  strings  of  metal  under 
the  fingerboard  which  sound  sympathetically.  The  gut  strings 
were  usually  tuned  thus:  D,  A,  F  sharp,  D,  A,  F  sharp,  D  (next 
below  middle  C).  The  sympathetic  strings,  if  few,  were  tuned 
diatonically  in  the  scale  of  D,  or  if  many,  chromatically.  The 
viola  d'amore  was  an  arm-viola.  The  viola  pomposa,  a  species  of 
viola  da  gamba  invented  by  Joh.  Seb.  Bach,  having  five  strings 


'56 

tuned  thus:  E,  A,  D,  G,  C  (the  second  below  middle  C);  some 
had  also  six  strings.  The  viola  da  spalla  was  the  same  as  the 
viola  da  gamba.  Arpeggione  or  guitar  violoncello,  a  stringed 
instrument  played  with  a  bow,  which  was  invented  by  G.  Staufer 
of  Vienna  in  1823.  It  is  of  the  size  of  the  viola  da  gamba,  the 
shape  of  the  body  something  like  that  of  the  guitar.  The  finger 
board  has  frets,  and  it  has  six  strings.  Schubert's  interesting 
Sonata  in  A,  for  piano  and  arpeggione,  written  in  1824,  was  com- 
posed for  this  instrument. 


No.  48.  Discant  Viola  da  Gamba,  five  strings,  ivory  inlaid 
fingerboard  and  tailpiece,  carved  head.  (Now  strung  with  only 
four  strings.) 


'58 


No.  49.     Viola  da  Gamba,  six  strings,  carved  head,  made  by 
Barak  Norman,  an  English  maker,  1688 — 1740. 


No.  50.     Viola   da    Gamba,    six    strings,    carved    head,    of 
German  make. 


i6o 


No.  51.     Viola  da  Gamba,  carved  head,  of  Italian  make. 


No.  52.     Viola  da  Gamba,  of  Italian  make. 


i62 


No.  53.     Viola  da  Gamba. 


No.  54.     Viola  da  Spalla,  carved  head,  of  Italian  make. 


164 


No.  55.     Viola  Pomposa,  six  strings,  French  make. 


t.  Hir^^ 


IB 


No.  56.     Violoncello  Piccolo,  carved  head. 


i66 


No.  57.     Arpeggione    or    Guitar    Violoncello,    six    strings, 
Bohemian  make. 


i67 


No.  58.     Viola  d'Amore,  carved  head,  fourteen  strings,  Ger- 
man make. 


i68 


No.  59.     Viola  d'Amore,  carved  head,  fourteen  strings,  Ger- 
man make. 

No.  60.     Viola    d'Amore,    carved    head,     fourteen    strings, 
Bohemian  make. 


No.  61.     Viola  da  Braccio,  German  make. 


169 


No.  62.     Viola  da  Braccio,  German  make. 


170 

No.  63.  Viola,  Stainer. 

No.  64.  Violo,  Italian  make. 

No.  65.  Viola,  with  carved  head,  Italian  make. 

No.  66.  Viola,  Amati. 

No.  67.  Violoncello,  with  carved  head,  old  German  make. 

No.  68.  Violoncello,  William  Forster. 

No.  69.  Violoncello,  Amati. 

No.  70.  Violoncello,  Italian  make. 

No.  71.  Violin,  Maggini. 

No.  72.  Violin,  Serafin. 

No.  73.  Violin,  German  make. 

No.  74.  Violin,  German  make. 

No.  75.  Violin,  Scheinlein. 

No.  76.  Violin,  Mathias  Thirr. 

No.  77.  Violin,  German  make. 

No.  78,  79,  80,  81.  String  quartet,  consisting  of  two  Vio- 
lins, Viola  and  Violoncello,  made  by  George  Gemiinder,  New 
York. 

No.  82.  Spanish  Guitar  (Vihuela),  with  double  metal 
strings,  built  during  the  i6th  century. 


170 


A     000  756  801     7 


ML 

462 

S819 


from  which  it  was  borrowed 


